The loss of the American colonies 1770-83

What sort of people emigrated to the American colonies?

- Majority settlers Protestant – British religious sects fleeing persecution

- Availability of land = worked and owned their own land and most employed in agricultural production linked to small communities

- Scarcity of labour in towns = better wages than Europe

- Sense of independence and loyal to local communities and churches

What are the differences between the individual 13 original colonies?

- New England colonies = small subsistence farmers and extensive fishing industry

- Middle colonies and Pennsylvania = source of wheat and flour products

- Southern colonies = tobacco, farming was labour-intensive = slavery

- High level of political experience compared to Europe

Why might the types of people that emigrated to the American colonies be a potential long term problem for the government?

- they were used to independence and self-governing through democracy
- used to defying authority

What were the social differences between the GB and the US?

- GB - farmers rented land from aristocrats, lower wages for craftsmen
- US - majority of farmers owned their land, craftsmen had higher wages, had financial security, sense of rights and entitlements

What were the political differences between the UK and the US?

- GB - very limited franchise with 1 in 10 men voting, large population, growing but limited political awareness
- US - 50-80% franchise, small population, politically active class of men

How was each colony governed?

- governor appointed by the British Crown and a legislative assembly
- legislative assemblies dealt with local legislation and taxation

How did colonial assemblies overstep constitutional position in the 1760s?

reacted to British taxes from Sugar Act 1764 until outbreak of hostilities
- first sent messaged to London then later petitioning then beginning to formulate unified responses 

Why did the colonists resent being part of what they considered a corrupt, autocratic Empire?

Britain was unwilling to consider colonists complaints over unfair taxation

How did the 'spoils of victory' after the Seven Years' War cause problems for Britain?

extension of the empire had to be governed and defended whilst paying off the War
- newly acquired American territories needed defence from French revenge attack/native Americans
- need to run 'French Canada'
- national debt was £133 million with repayments of £4.4m a year (income = £8m)
- cost of colonial administration increased £70,000-£350,000 by 1763

Why did the British government's solution to the problem of funding create tension with the 13 colonies?

- Attempted to raise revenue via additional tax duties

- Accused British of illegally extending their power and argued actions were tyrannical

- They believed the proper way to raise money was through colonial assemblies with it being spent internally

- British government requested the assemblies fund the 10,000 strong standing/permanent army, the colonists argued this was unnecessary and would be used for suppression

How did the colonists initially resist?

- coined phrase 'no taxation without representation'
- activists targeted King George, the British parliament and individual ministers
- Agents of the Crown at forefront of hostilities through raids and tarring and feathering e.g Thomas Hutchinson had his property raided and ransacked

Why did the Townshend Duties anger the colonists?

- 1767 introduced which were imposed on the imports of glass, wine, china, lead, paint, paper and tea

- Raised British Empire £40,000 and led to formal protests and conflict

- Fairer than other duties but colonists argued they had no right to tax internally and were suspicious of intentions

How did the colonists and British respond to the escalating tensions?

- Massachusetts Assembly published a denunciation for violating ‘no taxation without representation’

- Unlike Stamp Act of 1765 (which they repealed), British held firm increasing its naval and military presence in Boston

- Active resistance in Boston led by Sons of Liberty led persecution of agents still collecting

- Tensions culminated into Boston Massacre March 5^th 1770 which energised anti-British sentiment

How did American agitation cause a reversal of policy?

- 1770 government willing to remove taxes on everything but tea as it was not grown in England
- led to tea merchants doubling as dealers in smuggled tea

Explain the patriots.

- 1/3 population
- mainly drawn from colonial elite
- based on republicanism = rejected inherited power and favoured liberty and unalienable individual rights
- promoted unity more than British = 1771 Sam Adams propped establishment of Committee of Correspondence which would communicate in writing colonial grievances to all towns in Massachusetts and by Feb 1774 every colony except North Carolina and Pennsylvania had its own committee

Explain the loyalists

- many were royal officials (agents of the crown) and merchants

- others viewed rebels as hypocrites and schemers

- African-American slaves made up a majority as British promised them freedom and station in return for support

- included other minority groups e.g New England Anglicans, the Germans and Dutch of New York, Scots immigrants to colonies = diversity hindered minority

- in New York’s Hudson Valley animosity among tenants of estates owned by Revolutionary leaders turned them to the King

Explain the neutrals

- broadly satisfied with the repeal of the Townshend Duties
- British had to be more active in promoting benefits of British rule and need for an army to convince them

Why was the Tea Act 1773 introduced?

to stop EIC from bankruptcy by lowering tea tax it paid to the British government so granting it de facto monopoly on American tea trade

Why did the Tea Act anger the patriots? And how did they respond?

- Seen as another attempt to tax Americans illegally so Committees of Correspondence sprang into action

- Tea sent to Philadelphia and NY rejected and sent back, sent to Charleston was landed but not offered for sale

- Boston = greatest defiance

→ 60 Sons of Liberty, patriots, boarded the shops and threw the tea, about £10,000, into the sea

What did the Coercive Acts intend to do?

isolate Boston from 1st June until duty was paid and force patriots into submission

What were the main aspects of the Coercive Acts of 1774?

on customs duties

- amendments to the charter of the colony to allow the governor to appoint and remove officials so passed from Hutchinson to General Gage

- moving murder trials to England to prevent juries protecting and going easy on patriots

- giving power to military commanders to order the quartering of troops, decided where the troops were positioned 

What did the Quebec Act do?

dealt with the governing of Canada with similar sanctions

After the Boston Massacre and repeal of most of the Townshend duties what was there a period of?

relative quiet

What were the colonists' and British views after the Boston Massacre?

- King George III and Parliament still faced money problems and wanted to tax the colonies and regulate trade

- Colonists ideas about taxation without representation, tyranny and corruption had crystallised (Local newspapers and Committees of Correspondence aired colonial grievances)

What did the Committee of Correspondence change into early 1775?

Committee of Safety with day-to-day running of colonies placed in their hands 

What did a Continental Congress do?

- met and supported the views of the radicals
- called upon Massachusetts to arm for defence
- proclaimed the right of each colony to determine its own need for troops

What happened in Concord, Massachusetts?

- April 1775 Gage ordered seizure of weapons and powder stored 

- Patriot spies found out the plan and April 19^th Paul Revere and riders raised the alarm British regulars were on their way

- Whilst they reached the stores and destroyed them, the British and Gage were fired upon all the way until Boston 

= 273 casualties and 73 dead

What did early skirmishes show?

the British could not even hold down Massachusetts

What happened in Charlestown?

- British planned to launch attack on the heights north and south of Boston

- Details leaked = detachment of 1,000 Massachusetts and Connecticut soldiers gathered to defend a hill in Charlestown

- over 1,000 casualties of the King's troops, patriot casualties less than half of this

- British General Sir Henry Clinton was appalled “a dear bought victory” (pyrrhic victory)

- Abandoned plans to seize another high point in the city and evacuate

When did King George III declare all colonies to be in a state of open rebellion?

23rd August 1775

When did the second Continental Congress meet and what did they do?

- 10^th May 1775

- Careful democratic consultation

- Issued paper money to meet some costs of war

- George Washington made Commander of Continental Army

When was the Declaration of Independence released and why did it take longer?

4^th July 1776

- they were creating a new nation and system of government

- communication with local committees and assemblies took place at every step along the path

- Continental Congress needed to ensure every effort to accommodate the British had been explored before moving forward

What were some general ideas in the Declaration of Independence?

- When government becomes destructive to the unalienable rights the people can alter or abolish it

- The British have imposed military measures

- Also used tyrannical means of controlling the colonies

What were the Articles of Confederation?

a way of creating a national government

When were the Articles of Confederation ratified?

1781

Summarise key points of the Articles of Confederation.

- The colonies were coming together – mutual protection act = defend and support each other/ free travel

- Individual states retained some powers

- Agreed to pay off war debts

- Each state has to contribute funds to war effort

- Central government that coordinated foreign policy

- States could make their own political and military decisions and take part in the Congress of Confederation

- Could only be changed by the Congress of Confederation if all states agreed

What are the arguments surrounding why Britain lost their colonies?

- The British lost the war through a combination of incompetent leadership and poor supply lines

- The American colonies, had a sound leader in Washington, but equally poor supplies/resources

- Britain poured money into the War, but ultimately failed to win the ‘hearts and minds’ of the majority of colonists

- The intervention of foreign powers was crucial

What were the strengths of the British?

- 48,647 soldiers and could depend on mercenaries from other European states

- Royal Navy had 340 ships, operating from bases in Canada and the West Indies, blockaded and attacked American ports

- Lord Sandwich was an energetic leader

- Modern and diverse financial system that could absorb high levels of debt

Private investors and taxes = army and navy fit for purpose

What were the strengths of the Americans?

- The British did not view then as a united nation but a band of rebels

- Democratic principles = loyalists isolated

- Climate and terrains favoured the colonists – could exploit the British and their vulnerabilities when they decided to venture inland

- Ideological commitment and motivation – consistent theme throughout history, those defending their land are more motivated

- George Washington was an exceptional military leader who always regrouped and retrained his army to overcome challenges

Length of coastline meant Britain could not blockade the ports to force American submission

What were the weaknesses of Britain?

- Only 8,000 soldiers were in America

- Underinvestment in the Navy in the 1760s

- Supplying and maintaining troops in America was a logistical problem as loyalist support was dispersed

- Held the seaboard and sent armies inland attempting to pin down the Continental Army – involves splitting British forces and attempting pincer movements – stretched resources and depended on success of all British forces

- Little strategical oversight from London – chased down the Continental Army which stretched supply lines

With the entry of France and Spain into the war, the retention of the colonies pushed down the priority list (became a global war)

What were the weaknesses of America?

- Largely economic

- Relied on the printing of paper money, with Congress unable to levy taxes = inflation

- Weak industrial infrastructure compared to Britain, struggled to manufacture arms

What were the strategies of the British?

- Army defended ports they controlled (garrison), so never able to use all forces
- no political or economic centre to aim for
- after they left areas they captured locals rebelled - Historian Robinson "like trying to hit a swarm of flies with a hammer"
- seaboard strategy - capture or blockade American ports and starve the rebels out - seen as betrayal of loyalists so couldn't be too brutal

What were the options for the colonists and which did Washington choose?

1. Guerrilla War
2. Hit and run through tactical battles
3. Fight an offensive war - Washington chose this

What was General Burgoyne's plan?

lead a combined force of British regular soldiers, Hessian mercenaries, Native Americans, Canadians and loyalists
- overconfident, bet he would be back by Christmas

What were problems Burgoyne faced?

- his forces not joined by those of General Clinton further south
- burdened by a baggage train including 30 vehicles for his wardrobe and champagne
- plan was not co-ordinated with generals, including Clinton and Howe
- instead of retreat gambled Clinton's army would march north fast enough to prevent troops being overwhelmed

What was the result of Burgoyne's trip?

- army overstrecthed and surrendered = negotiated with Gates, surrendered 17th October 1777
- 5,895 troops were to lay down arms and march to Boston to be embarked on British ships on condition they didn't fight again - Congress overruled this and troops remained inprisoned until end of war 1783

What led to the French and Spanish entering the war?

- diplomatic mission led by Benjamin Franklin persuaded French
- wanted to regain lost territory and motivated by long-term rivalry
- treaties signed February 1778 and declared war on British June 1779

Why was the French-Spanish entrance a turning point?

- led to subsequent redrawing of British priorities, British mobilised against invasion holding its possessions in the West Indies and increased presence in India as they were more lucrative than the colonies
- French and Spanish finance the war through gold and supply the war to strengthen the American forces
- shows that the Americans can win

How much of the British army and Navy were in North America in 1778 and 1780?

army - 65% → 20%
navy - 41% → 13%

What was significant in the eventual defeat of the British in Yorktown 1781?

intervention of the French fleet at Chesapeake Bay under de Grasse - 10,000 French troops assisted capturing

What had Spanish forces done by 1781?

cleared British troops from the Mississippi valley

Summarise the siege of Yorktown

a coordinated Franco-American land and sea operation that trapped and forced the surrender of Cornwallis's British army on the Yorktown peninsula

Explain the events that led to the surrender of Cornwallis's army on 19th October 1781.

- French naval superiority under Admiral de Grasse defeated the British relief fleet = prevented reinforcement/resupply of Cornwallis's force
- Continental and French armies under George Washington, the Comte de Rochambeau and Marquis de Lafayette besieged roughly 7000-7500 British troops with about 14000-17000 Franco-American soldiers
- the rescue fleet was too late so after weeks of bombardment, dwindling supplies and failed relief Cornwallis's army surrendered - 8000 British prisoners taken alongside 240 guns
- casualties were light

What did the victory at Yorktown do?

effectively ended major military operations in the American Revolutionary War

What was the Peace of Paris?

Collection of treaties concluding the American Revolution and signed by representatives of Great Britain on one side and the US, France and Spain on the other

When were preliminary articles signed?

November 30th 1782

What treaties were signed 3rd September 1783?

- Britain-US in Paris
- Britain and France in Versailles
- Britain and Spain in Versailles

What did the Britain-US treaty do?

- gave generous boundaries to the Mississippi River and recognised U.S. independence 

- retained Canada

- Americans granted fishing rights off Newfoundland

- the Mississippi River was to be open to both British and American navigation

- encouraged fair treatment of loyalists including restitution of property though not always enforced

What did the Britain-France treaty do?

regained some territories as Britain surrendered Tobago and Senegal

What did the Britain-Spain treaty do?

Spain retained Minorca and Florida but failed to reclaim Gibraltar

What was agreed between the Netherlands and Britain?

signed a preliminary treaty on 2^nd September 1783 and a final separate peace on May 20^th 1784

→ limited territorial impact ceding the port city of Nagappattinam in India to Britain and allowing the British free navigation rights in the Dutch held Moluccas

What were the political impacts of the loss of colonies?

- Resignation of the Lord North (PM)

- Formation of a coalition government under William Pitt wins a decisive (for the C18th) electoral victory (1784-1801) (mastermind of the Anglo-French conflict of the 1790s)

- In the long term Britain showed remarkable resilience, politically and socially

- Power remained in the hands of the landed elite and monarchy

What were the economic impacts of the loss of colonies?

- 1783 national debt stood at a staggering £232m

- Britain’s trade routes were disrupted

- Financial cost to Britain – led to pressure from the city on the government to end the war (financiers and MPs were close)

- War didn’t trigger a recession as British population continued to grow – heightened demand for consumer goods combined with position as an island with large coal reserves = entrepreneurs benefitted from the stable banking system and built the mills and factories of the Industrial Revolution

- 1785 Britain’s trade with its former colonies had reached pre-war levels 

- value of exports to Europe doubled between 1783 and 1792

What happened in 1780 regarding colonial policy?

the mercantilist system in Ireland that was causing protests was changed to allow Ireland unrestricted free trade directly with Britain’s colonies

What happened in 1782 regarding colonial policy?

the Irish granted effective legislative independence as British repealed Declaratory Act of 1719 that had removed Ireland’s ability to govern itself as well and put it into a position of servitude to Parliament though it remained subject to George III

Why was the loss of the American colonies not accompanied by the frenzied hang wringing that followed decolonisation in the C20th had loss of 'Great Power' status?

- mainly because the concept of Empire was very much a C19th creation

- Britishness in C18th defined by victories over the French rather than the jingoistic triumphalism of C19th imperialism

→ Accepted the loss of the colonies and moved on