Qual Data

Paradigm

a framework that shapes views of reality, knowledge, evidence, and appropriate research methods.

Qualitative objective

Develop contextual understanding of behaviour, beliefs, motivations, and processes.

Qualitative data

Usually consist of words, observations, and other contextual accounts.

Emic perspective

Represents insider beliefs, perceptions, and cultural meanings.

Etic perspective

Represents the researcher's outsider interpretation.

Subjectivity

Participants and researchers bring perspectives that influence data and interpretation.

Reflexivity

Examine how identity, assumptions, relationships, methods, theories, and context influence the study.

Internal iteration

Each component is revisited and refined rather than completed only once.

Three linked cycles

Design, data collection, and analysis influence one another.

Design Cycle

Formulate questions and objectives, review literature and theory, develop a conceptual framework, and select methods.

Data Collection Cycle

Design the instrument, recruit participants, collect data, and make inductive inferences.

Data analysis cycle

Develop codes, describe and compare data, categorise and conceptualise findings, and develop theory.

Conceptual Framework

A map of central concepts and potential relationships to investigate.

In-depth interviews

Explore individual perceptions, experiences, sensitive issues, and personal context.

Focus groups

A method of qualitative data collection involving an interactive discussion between six to eight pre-selected participants, led by a trained moderator and focusing on a specific set of issues.

Purposive sampling

Select information-rich participants whose characteristics illuminate the research question.

Sampling goals

Seek maximum diversity, homogeneity, typical cases, critical cases, or cases relevant to theory development.

Gatekeeper function

Leaders, providers, and organisations can facilitate community entry and identify eligible people.

Register use

Select people according to recorded characteristics to build a diverse sample.

Snowballing

Participants or informants refer others who meet the criteria.

Formal networks

Organisations and services can circulate invitations or provide access to eligible people.

Informal networks

Social groups and online communities can reach people with shared experiences.

Point of Saturation

The point in data collection when no more new issues emerge, data begin to repeat with no added understanding of the issues, so that further data collection becomes redundant. Reaching saturation indicates the sample is adequate for a qualitative study.

Factors of Smaller samples

More feasible with narrow, homogeneous populations, rich data, concrete topics, and broad theme identification.

Factors of Larger samples

More likely with heterogeneous populations, multiple groups, thin data, complex phenomena, and theory development.

Sampling Criteria

Appropriate, Coherent, transparent, interpretive, saturated, ethical

Interview Structure

Introduction, Opening questions, key questions, closing questions.

Operationalisation

Translate abstract concepts into simple, participant-understandable questions.

Probe types

Use topical probes to check coverage and motivational probes to encourage continuation.

Deductive coding

Begin with codes from the interview guide, literature, theory, or researcher experience, then test and refine them against data.

Inductive coding

Identify issues and language emerging directly from close reading.

Deference effect

When a study participant says what they think an interviewer wants to hear rather than voicing their own opinion about an issue

Topical Probes

used when a participant mentions a subject, but their answer lacks the depth or specificity needed to fully understand the event or concept. They help the interviewer map out the external reality of the participant's experience.

Motivational Probes

designed to uncover the internal forces such as attitudes, values, fears, or desires-that influence a participant's behavior or opinions. They push past surface-level descriptions to find the underlying psychological mechanisms.

Active listening

An interviewing strategy used to generate rich data that involves listening to a participant's response and asking specific follow-up questions based on the response to go deeper into the issues raised by a participant.

Anonymity

The process of removing all identifying information of the participants before data analysis and reporting findings.

Beneficence

An ethical principle whereby researchers strive to maximize the benefits of research for wider society, and minimize the potential risk for study participants.

Case study analysis

Case study analysis involves narrative analysis on a single case through developing a synopsis of events and associated meanings and identifying the core narrative of the experience.

Categorization

An analytic task that involves grouping codes with similar characteristics together to represent a broader concept, which may become components of an explanatory theory

Code

Codes capture topics, issues or concepts in data, and are used to index data for analysis (this is called 'coding').

Codebook

An evolving list of all the codes that will be used to label (or code) data that typically includes the code name and instructions on how to use each code.

Coding

A process of indexing data by a set of codes (or labels) to enable retrieval of text on specific topics for analysis.

Coherence

Refers to the interlinkages within and between each of the sub-cycles of our qualitative research cycle, to ensure a study becomes cohesive and well integrated.

Conceptualization

An analytic task that involves understanding how individual components of data are linked together into a broader conceptual framework to help understand or explain a phenomenon as a whole

Confidentiality

An ethical principle to maintain the confidentiality of information collected from study participants, typically through removing personal identifiers, restricting data access, and secure data storage.

Constant comparative method

Part of the grounded theory method that involves a process of constantly comparing and contrasting data at every stage of analysis to identify patterns and explanations.

Content analysis

Content analysis involves counting and quantifying elements in qualitative data

Deductive conceptual framework

A framework that presents the different theoretical concepts that guide the research in the form of a process diagram.

Deductive reasoning

A 'top down' approach of deriving an explanation or hypotheses from existing literature or theory.

Discourse analysis

Discourse analysis focuses on how language, expressions, societal expectations and structures construct a social reality (or discourse) around a specific phenomenon.

Discussion guide

The data collection instrument used in focus group discussions, comprising topics or questions used by the moderator to guide the discussion.

Epistemology

Refers to the questions: What is represented as knowledge? What is the relationship between the researcher and study object? and What counts as evidence?

Group probe

A strategy used in focus group discussions to promote interaction between group members, whereby the moderator uses an issue raised by one participant to seek the reaction of other group members.

Harm minimization

An ethical principle to ensure that research participants are not harmed in any way by participating in a study

Hawthorne effect

A type of reactivity or observer effect, whereby study participants may modify or improve their behaviour in response to knowing they are being observed..

In-vivo code

A code name that uses a term, phrase or metaphor directly from the data that generally refers to a specific concept, behaviour or object.

Inductive conceptual framework

A conceptual model, based on empirical data, that explains the research findings and demonstrates how inductive concepts link together to understand the study phenomenon.

Inductive reasoning

A 'bottom up' approach of using empirical data to describe, explain or understand a phenomenon.

Informed consent

An ethical principle to ensure that research participants are informed about their role in a study, any potential risks of participating and that they voluntarily consent to participate.

Methodology

A set of principles that indicate how we gain knowledge: the research methods, procedures and practices used to study a social phenomenon.

Motivational probes (verbal prompts)

Short, verbal prompts used by an interviewer to encourage the interviewee to continue talking (e.g. a-ha, m-hm, ok).

Narrative analysis

Narrative analysis focuses on understanding people's own constructions of their lives and experiences, whereby each text is examined as a whole to maintain the narrative flow and context of each individual's experience.

Non-participant observation

A type of observation where the researcher only observes study participants, without participating in any activities with them.

Participatory approach to qualitative research

A research approach aiming at both theory development and social change, that requires involving study participants and other societal stakeholders in the research process from the study design onwards.

Pilot-test

Involves testing the effectiveness of a data collection instrument by conducting a mock interview, reviewing the outcome and modifying the instrument where needed

Positionality

The way researchers portray themselves during data collection, which can influence data generated..

Probability sampling

Strategies for selecting a sample that is statistically representative of a broader population, so that study results can be extrapolated to a parent population.

Quotation

Exact words of study participants used to exemplify issues, convey language, expressions or emotions of study participants.

Rapport

A relationship of trust between an interviewer and interviewee that creates a comfortable environment for an interviewee to share their experiences openly.

Research question

An overarching question that captures the research problem and will be answered by the study.

Thick description

A term developed by Clifford Geertz (1973). It refers to using description to identify both an issue and its context, since the context provides the social or cultural meaning to the issue and thus leads to a 'thick' or detailed description of the issue.

What is an In-Depth Interview (IDI) in qualitative research?

A one-to-one data collection method where an interviewer and interviewee discuss specific topics in depth to capture individual personal experiences and perspectives.

What is a primary advantage of using In-Depth Interviews (IDIs) regarding data depth?

"They capture detailed personal stories, individual voices, emotions, and personal living contexts that other methods cannot uncover."

Why are In-Depth Interviews (IDIs) particularly suited for sensitive research topics?

"Their private, confidential, one-to-one setting fosters trust and rapport, encouraging participants to disclose sensitive personal experiences."

What is a key structural disadvantage of In-Depth Interviews (IDIs) regarding participant interaction?

"They lack group interaction and feedback, preventing participants from debating ideas, clarifying views, or identifying shared community norms."

What is a practical limitation of In-Depth Interviews (IDIs) regarding research scale and resources?

"They require conducting and transcribing numerous individual sessions to capture a broad range of community views, which is time-consuming and labor-intensive."

What is a Focus Group Discussion (FGD)?

"An interactive discussion between six to eight pre-selected participants, led by a trained moderator, focusing on a specific set of research issues."

How does group interaction act as a primary advantage in Focus Group Discussions (FGDs)?

"Interaction enables participants to build on, challenge, and clarify each other's points, rapidly uncovering nuanced perspectives and diverse views."

What is a major advantage of Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) when exploring social behaviour?

"They replicate natural social interaction, making them ideal for identifying community norms, cultural values, and collective views."

What is a major limitation of Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) regarding data privacy?

"The public group setting lacks confidentiality, making FGDs unsuitable for collecting detailed personal histories or sensitive individual disclosures."

How can group dynamics present a disadvantage during Focus Group Discussions (FGDs)?

"Dominant participants may monopolise the discussion, while quieter participants may withhold opinions or conform due to social pressure."

What is a Key Informant Interview?

A qualitative interview focused on obtaining expert, institutional, or community-level narratives from an individual who represents a specific organisation or group.

What is a key advantage of conducting Key Informant Interviews during early study design?

They provide specialized insight into local contexts, colloquial language, and socio-cultural norms to refine interview guides and research instruments.

How do Key Informant Interviews benefit research on institutional practices?

They efficiently gather high-level narratives, institutional policies, and professional perspectives without requiring extensive general sampling.

What is a major disadvantage of relying on Key Informant Interviews to assess community perspectives?

The informant's responses may reflect professional or institutional bias rather than the actual lived experiences of general community members.

What type of data do Key Informant Interviews fail to capture effectively?

"They fail to capture intimate, personal life stories and individual-level personal experiences of lay community participants."

What is a Narrative or Biographical Interview?

An in-depth qualitative interview that explores an individual's personal life history over time, allowing the participant to lead and structure their own narrative.

What is a primary advantage of Narrative/Biographical Interviews regarding participant agency?

They empower participants to frame their experiences in their own words and structure, revealing deeply subjective meanings attached to life events.

How do Narrative/Biographical Interviews enhance contextual understanding?

They situate personal experiences chronologically within broader socio-cultural, historical, and environmental life trajectories.

What is an analytical disadvantage of Narrative/Biographical Interviews?

They produce extensive, complex text that requires specialized, highly time-intensive narrative or discourse analysis.

What is a key sampling disadvantage of Narrative/Biographical Interviews?

They provide deep insight into only a single individual's life history, limiting comparative analysis across larger participant groups.

What is a Dyadic or Paired Interview?

A qualitative interview conducted simultaneously with two participants who discuss their experiences and interact around a shared research topic.

What dynamic advantage do Dyadic/Paired Interviews offer over single In-Depth Interviews?

They allow researchers to observe interpersonal dynamics, co-construction of meanings, and joint decision-making between two connected individuals.

How can the presence of a second participant benefit interviewees in Dyadic Interviews?

Having a peer, partner, or colleague present can provide mutual emotional support and comfort when discussing shared experiences.

What power-related disadvantage can arise during a Dyadic Interview?

Power imbalances or interpersonal conflicts between the two participants can cause one individual to dominate while inhibiting the other from speaking freely.

What is a confidentiality limitation of Dyadic/Paired Interviews?

Full individual confidentiality cannot be guaranteed between the two participants sharing the interview space.

What is a Virtual or Remote Interview?

A qualitative interview conducted via telecommunication platforms (such as telephone, video calls, or online messaging) rather than face-to-face.

What geographical advantage do Virtual/Remote Interviews provide?

They extend research reach to include geographically dispersed, remote, or mobility-restricted participants efficiently and cost-effectively.

How do Virtual/Remote Interviews lower participant barriers to participation?

They offer enhanced relative anonymity and convenience, allowing participants to contribute comfortably from a familiar, private space.

What observational limitation affects Virtual/Remote Interviews compared to face-to-face interviews?

They reduce or eliminate subtle visual cues, non-verbal body language, and immediate physical environmental context assessment.