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What are the main methods used to observe cells?
Light microscopy, electron microscopy and specialised imaging techniques.
What is magnification?
How much larger an image appears compared with the actual object.
What is resolution?
The ability to distinguish two closely spaced objects as separate.
What is the approximate resolution of the human eye and a light microscope?
The human eye: 0.1–0.2 millimetres. A conventional light microscope: 0.2 micrometres, equivalent to 200 nanometres.
Why are tissues fixed before microscopy?
To preserve tissue structure and prevent deterioration.
How does formaldehyde preserve tissue?
It forms cross-links between proteins, helping preserve tissue structure.
Why is tissue embedded in paraffin wax?
To make the tissue firm enough to cut into thin sections.
What instrument cuts thin tissue sections?
A microtome.
Why are tissue sections stained?
To increase contrast because many biological tissues are transparent.
What do haematoxylin and eosin stain?
Haematoxylin stains nuclei blue or purple.
Eosin stains cytoplasm and many other tissue components pink.
What is immunohistochemistry?
A technique that uses labelled antibodies to detect specific proteins in tissues.
What is vimentin?
An intermediate filament protein that supports cell shape and mechanical integrity.
Why do living cells have poor contrast in bright-field microscopy?
They are largely transparent and absorb little visible light.
How does phase-contrast microscopy improve cell visibility?
It converts differences in the phase of light into differences in brightness.
What is differential interference contrast microscopy?
A technique that enhances contrast in transparent specimens, producing an image with a three-dimensional appearance.
What is fluorescence microscopy used for?
To visualise specific molecules or cell structures using fluorescent labels.
What happens during excitation and emission in fluorescence microscopy?
A fluorescent molecule absorbs light, raising an electron to a higher energy level. When the electron returns to a lower energy level, light is emitted, usually at a longer wavelength.
Why are filters used in fluorescence microscopy?
To separate the emitted fluorescent light from the excitation light.
What are DAPI and green fluorescent protein used for?
DAPI binds to DNA and produces blue fluorescence.
Green fluorescent protein acts as a fluorescent marker for proteins or cell structures.
Why are multiple fluorescent labels used?
To identify different molecules or structures in the same sample. Merged images can show their locations and possible overlap.
How does confocal microscopy improve images?
A focused laser scans the sample, while a pinhole blocks out-of-focus light, improving image clarity.
hat is an optical section, and how can it be used to create a three-dimensional image?
An optical section is an image of a thin plane within a specimen. Combining sections taken at different depths can produce a three-dimensional reconstruction.
What are total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy and atomic force microscopy used for?
Total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy studies fluorescent molecules close to a cell surface.
Atomic force microscopy uses a fine probe to measure surface features and mechanical properties.
What is super-resolution microscopy?
A group of techniques that overcome the conventional light microscope's resolution limit, allowing much smaller details to be distinguished.
Why can electron microscopes resolve smaller details than light microscopes?
Electrons have a much shorter wavelength than visible light, allowing higher resolution.
Why do electron microscopes require a vacuum and specialised sample preparation?
The vacuum allows electrons to travel without being scattered by air. Samples must be prepared to withstand imaging conditions and provide suitable contrast.
What is transmission electron microscopy used for?
To examine internal cell structures by passing electrons through a thin specimen.
What is scanning electron microscopy used for?
To examine specimen surfaces, producing detailed images with a three-dimensional appearance.
Why are some specimens coated with gold for scanning electron microscopy?
Gold provides a conductive surface, helping reduce electrical charge build-up and improve image quality.
What are shadowing, freeze-fracture, negative staining and cryo-electron microscopy?
Shadowing: coats a specimen with metal at an angle to reveal surface features.
Freeze-fracture: splits frozen specimens to reveal internal membrane structures.
Negative staining: stains the background around a specimen to make its shape easier to see.
Cryo-electron microscopy: rapidly freezes specimens in vitreous ice to preserve structures close to their natural state.
What is the relationship between cells, tissues, organs and systems?
Cells form tissues, different tissues combine to form organs, and related organs work together in organ systems.
What is a tissue?
A group of cells organised to perform particular functions.
What is an organ?
A structure made of different tissues working together to perform specific functions.
What is an organ system?
A group of related organs that work together to perform major functions in the body.
What are parenchymal cells and stromal cells?
Parenchymal cells perform the main specialised functions of an organ.
Stromal cells and connective tissue provide structural support and help maintain the organ's environment.
What are the five basic tissue types in the body?
Blood, connective tissue, epithelial tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue.
What are the main components and functions of blood?
Plasma transports substances and contains water, proteins and inorganic salts.
Red blood cells transport oxygen and carbon dioxide.
White blood cells provide immune defence.
Platelets help blood clot.
What are the main functions of connective tissue?
It supports and holds organs in place, provides structural strength, transports nutrients and waste through its blood vessels, contributes to immune defence and helps tissue repair.
What are the main types of connective tissue?
Loose connective tissue: fills spaces and supports surrounding tissues.
Dense connective tissue: provides strength, as in tendons.
Specialised connective tissue: includes bone, cartilage and adipose tissue.
What are the functions of the main connective tissue cells?
Fibroblasts: produce extracellular matrix in connective tissue.
Chondroblasts and chondrocytes: produce and maintain cartilage matrix.
Osteoblasts: produce bone matrix.
Adipocytes: store fat.
Macrophages, mast cells and other white blood cells: contribute to immune defence.
What is the extracellular matrix?
A three-dimensional network of material outside cells that provides support and influences cell behaviour.
What are the main components of the extracellular matrix?
Collagen, elastin, proteoglycans, glycosaminoglycans and non-collagenous glycoproteins.
What are the main functions of the extracellular matrix?
It provides structural support, mechanical strength and elasticity, helps determine tissue shape, guides cell migration and influences cell signalling and behaviour.
Which cells produce extracellular matrix?
Fibroblasts produce connective tissue matrix.
Chondroblasts and chondrocytes produce cartilage matrix.
Osteoblasts produce bone matrix.
What is collagen, and what is its main function?
Collagen is a major structural protein that gives tissues high tensile strength, helping them resist stretching and pulling forces.
How is collagen produced and assembled?
Collagen chains are synthesised inside cells and assembled into a triple helix called procollagen. Procollagen is secreted from the cell, processed outside the cell and assembled into collagen fibrils that are cross-linked for strength.
What is elastin, and what is its main function?
Elastin is a protein that allows tissues to stretch and return to their original shape.
What role does fibrillin play in elastic fibres?
Fibrillin forms microfibrils that provide a scaffold for the organisation of elastin fibres.
What is fibronectin, and why is it important?
Fibronectin is a non-collagenous glycoprotein that binds to components of the extracellular matrix and to cell-surface receptors called integrins, helping connect cells to the matrix.
What are glycosaminoglycans?
Long, unbranched carbohydrate chains made of repeating sugar units. Their negative charge attracts water, helping form a hydrated gel within the extracellular matrix.
What are the four major groups of glycosaminoglycans?
Hyaluronic acid, also called hyaluronan
Chondroitin sulphate and dermatan sulphate
Heparan sulphate and heparin
Keratan sulphate
What are proteoglycans, and how do they differ from hyaluronic acid?
Proteoglycans consist of a core protein with attached glycosaminoglycan chains. Hyaluronic acid is an important exception because it is not covalently attached to a core protein.
Why are glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans important in the extracellular matrix?
They attract and retain water, forming a hydrated gel that helps tissues resist compression and provides an environment for cells and signalling molecules.
What are integrins, and what is their main function?
Integrins are cell-surface proteins made of alpha and beta subunits. They connect the extracellular matrix outside the cell to the cytoskeleton inside the cell.
How do integrins influence cell behaviour?
They help cells attach to the matrix and transmit signals between the extracellular matrix and the cell, influencing processes such as survival, movement and growth.
What are syndecans?
Cell-surface proteoglycans that help cells interact with the extracellular matrix and respond to growth factors and other signalling molecules.
What is a basement membrane?
A thin layer of specialised extracellular matrix that supports epithelial tissues, acts as a selective filter in certain locations and can guide cell migration.
How is the extracellular matrix degraded and its breakdown controlled?
Cells release enzymes called proteases that break down matrix components. Matrix metalloproteinases require metal ions for activity, while serine proteases have a serine residue in their active site. Protease inhibitors and other regulatory mechanisms control their activity.
What are examples of diseases involving extracellular matrix defects?
Osteogenesis imperfecta: collagen defects cause fragile bones.
Scurvy: vitamin C deficiency impairs collagen production.
Marfan syndrome: defects involving fibrillin affect elastic fibres.
Cutis laxa: abnormal elastic fibres cause loose, less elastic skin.
Ehlers-Danlos syndromes: disorders involving collagen or its processing.
Glanzmann thrombasthenia: defective platelet integrin function impairs platelet aggregation.
How can the extracellular matrix change in response to a tissue's needs?
Cells produce, organise and degrade matrix components in response to local signals. This can create specialised matrices, such as mineralised bone matrix or elastic matrix in tissues that need to stretch.
What is epithelial tissue?
Sheets of closely connected cells arranged in one or more layers that cover body surfaces and line organs and cavities.
What are the main functions of epithelial tissue?
Protection, absorption, secretion and selective diffusion.
What is the basement membrane?
A specialised layer of extracellular matrix that supports epithelial tissue and attaches it to underlying tissue.
How is epithelial tissue classified?
By cell shape, number of cell layers and surface specialisations.
What are the three main epithelial cell shapes?
Squamous: flat cells.
Cuboidal: cube-shaped cells.
Columnar: tall, column-shaped cells.
What is the difference between simple and stratified epithelium?
Simple epithelium has one layer of cells. Stratified epithelium has multiple layers.
What are the main types of simple epithelium and where are they found?
Simple squamous: flat cells specialised for diffusion and filtration; found in lung alveoli and blood vessel linings.
Simple cuboidal: involved in absorption and secretion; found in kidney tubules.
Simple columnar: involved in absorption and secretion; found in the gut lining.
What is stratified squamous epithelium, and where is it found?
Epithelium with multiple layers and flattened surface cells. It protects against friction and damage and is found in the skin, oral cavity and vagina.
What is the difference between exocrine and endocrine glands?
Exocrine glands release products through ducts onto a surface or into a lumen, such as sweat glands.
Endocrine glands release hormones into surrounding tissue and the bloodstream without ducts, such as the pituitary gland.
What is epithelial cell polarity?
The organisation of a cell into distinct regions with different structures and functions. The apical surface faces a lumen or external environment, while the basal surface contacts the basement membrane.
What are the three main functional categories of cell junctions?
Occluding junctions: seal spaces between cells.
Communicating junctions: allow cells to exchange signals and small molecules.
Anchoring junctions: provide mechanical attachment and strength.
What are tight junctions, and what do they do?
Tight junctions are occluding junctions formed by proteins including claudins and occludin. They limit leakage between cells and help maintain separation between the apical and basolateral cell membrane regions.
What are gap junctions?
Communicating junctions that form channels between neighbouring cells, allowing small molecules and ions to pass directly between them.
What are adherens junctions?
Anchoring junctions that use cadherin proteins to connect neighbouring cells to their actin cytoskeletons. They help maintain tissue organisation and allow epithelial sheets to change shape.
What are desmosomes?
Strong, button-like anchoring junctions that connect neighbouring cells through cadherin-family proteins linked to intermediate filaments. They are important in tissues exposed to mechanical stress, such as skin and cardiac muscle.
What are focal adhesions and hemidesmosomes?
Both connect cells to the extracellular matrix through integrins. Focal adhesions connect to actin filaments and help with movement and signalling; hemidesmosomes connect to intermediate filaments and provide strong attachment to the basement membrane.
How do cell junctions work together?
They maintain tissue integrity, control movement of substances, enable communication, preserve cell polarity and provide mechanical strength.
What are cilia and microvilli?
Cilia are hair-like structures that move fluid or material along a cell surface.
Microvilli are small membrane projections that increase surface area for absorption.
What are the three main types of muscle tissue?
Skeletal muscle, smooth muscle and cardiac muscle.
How do actin and myosin produce muscle contraction?
Actin and myosin are contractile proteins that interact and slide past one another to shorten or generate force in muscle cells. Contraction is regulated by calcium ions.
What are the main characteristics of skeletal muscle?
Skeletal muscle fibres are long, elongated and multinucleated, with visible cross-striations. They are generally under voluntary control and produce powerful contractions for body movement.
What are the main characteristics of smooth muscle?
Smooth muscle cells are small, spindle-shaped and usually have one nucleus. They lack visible cross-striations and contract involuntarily, for example in the digestive tract and blood vessel walls.
What are the main characteristics of cardiac muscle?
Cardiac muscle cells are branched, usually have one or two nuclei, and have visible cross-striations. They contract involuntarily and connect through specialised junctions called intercalated discs.
What is the function of intercalated discs?
They connect cardiac muscle cells mechanically and electrically, helping the heart contract in a coordinated way.
What are the two main cell types in nervous tissue?
Neurons: transmit electrical and chemical signals.
Glial cells: provide structural, metabolic and protective support and help regulate the neuronal environment.
What are the main parts of a neuron and their functions?
Dendrites receive signals.
The cell body contains the nucleus and maintains the cell.
The axon carries electrical signals away from the cell body.
Synapses are specialised sites where neurons communicate with other cells.
What is the difference between the central and peripheral nervous systems?
The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system consists of nervous tissue outside them, including nerves and ganglia.
What is the difference between grey matter and white matter?
Grey matter contains many neuron cell bodies, dendrites and synapses. White matter consists mainly of axons, many of which are covered by myelin.
What are the main glial cells of the central nervous system and their functions?
Oligodendrocytes: produce myelin around axons.
Astrocytes: provide structural and metabolic support and regulate the neuronal environment.
Microglia: provide immune defence and remove debris by phagocytosis.
Ependymal cells: line brain ventricles and the central canal of the spinal cord and are associated with cerebrospinal fluid production and movement.
What are Schwann cells and what do they do?
Schwann cells are glial cells of the peripheral nervous system. They produce myelin around peripheral axons and support nerve fibres.
What is cell phenotype, and why do different cell types have different phenotypes despite containing the same DNA?
Cell phenotype refers to a cell’s observable characteristics, such as its size, shape and function. Different cell types express different combinations of genes, producing different proteins that give each cell its specialised characteristics.
What is the difference between transcription and translation?
Transcription: genetic information in DNA is copied into RNA.
Translation: the information in messenger RNA is used to produce a protein.
What are the seven main levels at which eukaryotic gene expression can be regulated?
Gene transcription.
RNA processing.
RNA transport.
Messenger RNA degradation.
Translation.
Protein modification.
Protein degradation or activity.
What are transcription factors, and what are their two main functional domains?
Transcription factors are proteins that regulate gene transcription.
DNA-binding domain: recognises and binds to a specific DNA sequence.
Transactivation or transregulatory domain: interacts with other proteins in the transcription machinery to influence transcription.