Monitoring & Assessment MIDTERM
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96 Terms
What is an inventory?
A snapshot of what is present at a particular time. Example: counting sagebrush plants in 2026.
What is monitoring?
Repeatedly measuring an attribute over time. Example: measuring sagebrush density every year for five years.
What is assessment?
Interpreting monitoring data to evaluate objectives and guide decisions. Example: checking whether sagebrush density increased enough.
How do inventory and monitoring differ?
Inventory describes conditions at one time; monitoring detects change over time.
How does assessment relate to monitoring?
Monitoring collects data; assessment interprets results and evaluates management success.
What are the six components of a management objective?
Attribute, direction, magnitude, time frame, location, and target or threshold. (ADMTLT)
Give an example of a vegetation management objective.
Increase sagebrush density from 2 to at least 5 plants/m² in the restoration area within five years.
Give an example of a wildlife management objective.
Maintain mule deer survival at or above 80% annually for three years in the management unit.
What affects your choice of monitoring attribute?
Relevance, sensitivity, feasibility, accuracy, variability, time scale, and management usefulness.
What is a conceptual model?
A simplified diagram showing ecological components and their relationships.
Why use a conceptual model?
To identify causes, predict management effects, and choose measurable attributes and objectives.
Give an example of a conceptual model.
Grazing pressure → seedling survival → sagebrush density → restoration success.
What is a biological population?
All organisms of a species in a defined area at a given time. Example: all sagebrush plants in a restoration area.
What is a statistical population?
The entire set of units or observations you want to draw conclusions about. Example: all possible plot-level sagebrush density values in an area.
How do biological and statistical populations differ?
A biological population consists of organisms; a statistical population consists of the units or values targeted by inference.
What is a census?
Measuring every unit in the population of interest.
What is a sample, and why do we sample?
A subset of a population. Sampling saves time and money and can estimate population characteristics.
What is simple random sampling? Give an example.
Randomly select units from a population. Example: randomly selecting 20 vegetation plots.
What is stratified random sampling? Give an example.
Divide an area into strata, then randomly sample within each. Example: plots in low-, middle-, and high-elevation zones.
What is a sample unit?
The unit selected and measured, such as an independently selected vegetation plot.
What is a subsample?
A smaller measurement within a sample unit. Example: five quadrats measured inside each plot.
What are three key requirements for sampling units?
Clearly defined, appropriate to the research question, and independent or correctly accounted for statistically.
What is sample size?
The number of independent sample units or replicates included in an analysis.
What is pseudoreplication?
Treating non-independent observations as independent replicates. Example: treating 10 quadrats within one treated plot as 10 treatment replicates.
What is sampling error?
Uncertainty from measuring a sample instead of the entire population.
What is measurement error?
The difference between a measured value and the true or underlying value due to measurement limitations.
What is bias? How can you reduce it?
Systematic over- or underestimation. Use defensible random sampling, standardized methods, and consistent measurements.
What is a Type I error? Give an example.
Rejecting a true null hypothesis (false positive). Example: concluding restoration increased density when it did not.
What is a Type II error? Give an example.
Failing to reject a false null hypothesis (false negative). Example: missing a real increase in sagebrush density.
What are alpha and beta?
Alpha (α) is the significance threshold and Type I error rate; beta (β) is the Type II error probability under a specified alternative.
What is statistical power?
The probability of detecting an effect when it exists under the specified alternative; power = 1 − β.
What is a predictor variable? Give an example.
A variable used to explain or predict an outcome. Example: restoration treatment.
What is a response variable? Give an example.
The measured outcome. Example: sagebrush density after restoration.
What is a categorical variable? Give an example.
A variable representing groups or classes. Example: seeded, tubeling, or wildling treatment.
What is a continuous variable? Give an example.
A numeric measurement along a continuum. Example: plant height in centimeters.
What is a statistical hypothesis?
A testable statement about a population parameter or relationship.
Give the null and alternative hypotheses for three restoration treatments.
H₀: all three population means are equal. Hₐ: at least one population mean differs.
How does a biological hypothesis differ from a statistical hypothesis?
A biological hypothesis proposes an ecological explanation; a statistical hypothesis states what the data will test.
Give an example of a biological hypothesis.
Broadcast seeding produces greater sagebrush density than tubelings because seeds can establish across a larger area.
What are common t-test and ANOVA assumptions?
Independent observations, approximately normal residuals within groups, and equal variances for standard tests.
What is the normality assumption for a paired t-test?
The within-pair differences should be approximately normally distributed.
When is a one-sample t-test used?
To compare a sample mean with a specified value. Example: testing whether mean plant height differs from 20 cm.
When is an independent two-sample t-test used?
To compare means of two independent groups. Example: seeded versus control plots.
When is a paired t-test used?
To compare paired observations. Example: measuring the same plots before and after restoration.
What is alpha?
The significance threshold selected before testing, often 0.05.
What does a p-value mean?
Assuming H₀ and test assumptions are correct, the probability of a test statistic at least as extreme as the observed one.
When do you reject H₀ using a p-value?
Reject when p ≤ α. If p > α, fail to reject H₀.
If p = 0.03 and α = 0.05, what is the decision?
Reject H₀ because 0.03 < 0.05.
Does failing to reject H₀ prove it is true?
No. It means there is insufficient evidence to reject H₀.
What is a test statistic?
A number summarizing how far observed data depart from H₀ relative to estimated variability.
What is a critical value?
A test-statistic threshold determined by alpha, degrees of freedom, and the test type.
When do you reject H₀ using a two-tailed t-statistic?
Reject if |t| exceeds the critical t-value. Example: |2.8| > 2.1 means reject H₀.
What can you do when group variances are unequal?
Use Welch's t-test for two groups or Welch's ANOVA for three or more groups; consider suitable transformations or models.
What is adaptive management?
Implement actions, monitor outcomes, assess results, and adjust management based on what is learned.
Give an example of adaptive management.
Reduce grazing, monitor sagebrush recruitment, assess results, then modify restoration if recruitment remains low.
What are the main steps in monitoring?
Define problem → conceptual model → objectives → attributes → sampling design → collect data → analyze → assess → adjust management.
Why must objectives be measurable?
So monitoring can determine whether a specific target has been achieved.
Why consider field collection and study design when defining sample units?
The design identifies independent replicates; field subsamples within one plot cannot automatically count as independent treatment replicates.
Name two planning problems that can cause monitoring failure.
Vague objectives and a sampling design that cannot answer the management question. Other examples: inadequate sample size or funding.
Name two monitoring problems beyond your control.
Wildfire or drought and loss of access to a study area. Other examples: political changes or unexpected funding loss.
What is vegetation density?
Number of individuals per unit area, such as plants/m². Best when individual plants can be counted.
What is vegetation frequency?
Percentage of sampling units containing a species. Example: occurrence in 8 of 10 quadrats = 80% frequency.
What is vegetation cover?
Percentage of a defined area occupied by vegetation. Useful for vegetation dominance or ground protection.
When is density preferred, and when is it inappropriate?
Use it to measure abundance when individuals are distinguishable. It is inappropriate when plants overlap or individual boundaries are unclear.
When is frequency preferred, and when is it inappropriate?
Use it to measure distribution across units. It is inappropriate when exact abundance or biomass is needed.
When is cover preferred, and when is it inappropriate?
Use it to measure occupied ground area or dominance. It is inappropriate when exact individual counts are needed.
How do density, frequency, and cover differ?
Density = individuals per area; frequency = occurrence among units; cover = area occupied.
What is ANOVA used for?
Testing whether means differ among three or more groups, or evaluating factor effects in an appropriate model.
How does ANOVA work conceptually?
It compares between-group variation with within-group variation to determine whether group means differ more than expected from random variation.
What is the ANOVA F-statistic?
F = MS between groups ÷ MS within groups. A larger F can indicate stronger evidence of mean differences.
What is a sum of squares (SS)?
A measure of variation attributable to a source, such as between groups or within groups.
What is a mean square (MS)?
A sum of squares divided by its degrees of freedom.
What are the one-way ANOVA degrees of freedom?
Between: k − 1; within: N − k; total: N − 1, where k is groups and N is independent observations.
For 3 groups and 18 independent plots, what are ANOVA degrees of freedom?
Between df = 2; within df = 15; total df = 17. Report F(2,15).
What does a significant ANOVA tell you?
At least one population mean differs. It does not identify which groups differ; use appropriate post-hoc comparisons.
What is a two-factor ANOVA?
ANOVA with two categorical factors. Example: testing restoration treatment and grazing condition effects on sagebrush density.
What are the three effects tested by a two-factor ANOVA?
Factor A's main effect, factor B's main effect, and the interaction between A and B.
What does an interaction mean in a two-factor ANOVA?
The effect of one factor depends on the level of the other. Example: seeding works better than tubelings only in ungrazed areas.