Scott: Ch4 - Criminological Theories and the Victim

What core assumption does the classical school of thought make about individuals who commit crimes?

It assumes that individuals who commit crime are active and rational participants in their decisions to commit criminal acts.

What principle did Cesare Beccaria propose regarding punishment in order to effectively control criminal activity?

He suggested that punishment should be proportional to the harm that was done.

Who introduced the criminal event perspective to encourage viewing crime within a larger social context?

Vince Sacco and Leslie Kennedy.

What are the three distinct stages of a criminal event according to the criminal event perspective?

Criminal precursors, criminal transaction, and the aftermath of crime.

How long does the criminal transaction stage typically last compared to other stages of the criminal event?

It is relatively short in comparison to the other stages, often lasting less than five minutes.

Which theorists developed lifestyles theory during the 1970s?

Michael Hindelang, Michael Gottfredson, and James Garofalo.

According to lifestyles theory, what common social settings most frequently illustrate how lifestyle choices increase victimization risk?

Activities in taverns and bars.

Which demographic group's victimization patterns does lifestyles theory explain better?

It stands as a better explanation of male victimization patterns.

According to Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson's routine activities theory, which three elements must converge for a crime to occur?

A motivated offender, a suitable target, and a lack of capable guardianship.

What is 'target hardening' as described in routine activities theory?

A process where potential victims educate themselves and take protective security measures to become less suitable targets to offenders.

What idea regarding punishment and deterrence did Michel Foucault discuss in Discipline and Punish (1977)?

The idea that a person who committed a crime should suffer as part of their punishment, often in public so observing their suffering would deter others.

What penal method did Jeremy Bentham advocate for in 1789, and how did he believe punishment should be measured?

Bentham was one of the first to advocate for incarceration, believing the amount of punishment or pain inflicted must balance the pleasure gained by committing the offence.

What is the difference between specific deterrence and general deterrence?

Specific deterrence occurs when an individual directly punished ceases offending for fear of further punishment, whereas general deterrence occurs when others learn of that punishment and are dissuaded from deviance.

What are the three components required for administering effective punishment under deterrence theory?

Celerity of punishment, certainty of punishment, and severity of punishment.

How does deterrence theory define 'celerity of punishment'?

The speed at which the punishment is administered, requiring it to be applied in close temporal proximity to the crime or apprehension to maintain deterring strength.

Which theorists are associated with the rational choice perspective that explains an offender's cognitive weighing process?

Derek Cornish and Ronald Clarke.

Who originally coined the term 'situated transaction' in 1963?

Sociologist Erving Goffman.

What data sample did David Luckenbill examine in 1977 to develop situated transaction theory?

Luckenbill studied 70 transactions involving 71 homicides (including one double murder) between 1963 and 1972.

What action initiates stage one of a situated transaction leading to homicide?

The eventual victim insults the honour of the eventual offender through an unprovoked verbal communication or physical gesture.

What is the difference between uxoricide and mariticide?

Uxoricide is a homicide where a man kills his wife, while mariticide is the killing of either spouse by the other.

Which 19th-century concept coined by Herbert Spencer underlies the criticisms of rational choice theories?

Social Darwinism, which is encapsulated by the principle of 'survival of the fittest.'

What did Cesare Lombroso postulate about criminals and victims in early positivist criminology?

He argued that some criminals and victims were predisposed to their acts as a result of improper evolution rather than making conscious decisions.

In positivist theory, how do innate features differ from social features?

Innate features are internal physiological traits that cannot be changed (such as sex or skin tone), whereas social features are external surrounding factors (such as family life, nutrition, or income).

According to feminist criminologists, where is the power dynamic that disadvantages women rooted?

It is rooted in patriarchal, hegemonic structures that seek to undermine women and minorities.

What critique did Leonard (1982) raise regarding traditional criminological theories?

Leonard noted that gender remains largely unexplored in traditional theories, ignoring minorities' social contexts and running the risk of blaming victims.

What issue did Dorie Klein (1973) take with neoclassical criminological theories?

Klein challenged their victim-blaming nature, pointing out that they omit the role of power and fail to question the ontological assumptions underlying victim blaming.

According to control theory, what causes criminal activity and vulnerability to victimization?

Low levels of self-control, typically resulting from early childhood experiences such as inappropriate parenting or trauma.

What did the meta-analysis of 66 studies by Pratt, Turanovic, Fox, and Wright (2014) reveal about self-control?

A consistent direct relationship existed between low self-control and criminal offending, but the relationship between low self-control and victimization was indirect.

What is the purpose of the neutralization techniques identified by Sykes and Matza (1957)?

They are rationalizations that allow delinquents to neutralize conformist values and shift blame to outside forces, reducing their own culpability.

Which neutralization technique involves an offender claiming they had to steal company money to cover a gambling debt?

Defense of necessity.

What term did David Matza (1964) give to the process of moving away from conformist values that constrain behaviour?

Drift.

What concept did Charles Horton Cooley (1902) introduce to explain identity formation?

The 'looking glass self,' in which individuals evaluate and judge themselves based on observations made by others.

In George Herbert Mead's 'socialized self,' how do the 'I' and 'me' components differ?

The 'I' represents the unrestrained, spontaneous self, while the 'me' represents the restrained self concerned with outward social appearance.

What concept did Frank Tannenbaum introduce in 1938 regarding social reaction to deviance?

The idea that individuals could be 'tagged' as delinquent by others, which often leads to further delinquent behaviour.

According to Edwin Lemert (1951), what distinguishes primary deviance from secondary deviance?

Primary deviance is initial participation in a deviant act without internalizing the label, whereas secondary deviance occurs once the actor accepts the label and interacts with the social world as a deviant.

What did Howard Becker (1963) emphasize regarding the creation of an 'outsider'?

Becker emphasized that becoming an outsider involves a drift from primary to secondary deviance through the labelling applied by those in power.

What four camps comprise psychological explanations of victimization?

Biological, cognitive, psychoanalytic, and behaviourist underpinnings of mental health.

How does B. F. Skinner's behaviourist perspective conceptualize human mental health and behaviour?

It views psychological makeup as a product of learning, where individuals are conditioned to respond to external environmental stimuli and reinforcements.

What is the primary aim of treatment within the psychological model of victimology?

To reduce the effects of psychological issues by reducing symptoms and helping the victim cope with trauma or maladaptive behaviour.

What is the literal Greek origin and sociological definition of the term 'stigma'?

From the Greek word for a physical mark or spot on the body that leads to disgrace or reproach; in sociology, it refers to any characteristic that produces these discrediting effects.

Cesare Beccaria postulated that to effectively control crime, punishment should be proportional to the __________ that was done.

harm

The criminal event perspective was put forth by Vince Sacco and __________ to examine crime within a larger social context.

Leslie Kennedy

In the criminal event perspective, the __________ is relatively short in comparison to the other stages, often lasting less than five minutes.

criminal transaction

The process by which a potential victim takes protective measures and becomes less suitable to offenders is known as __________.

target hardening

Lifestyles theory was developed by Michael Hindelang, Michael Gottfredson, and __________.

James Garofalo

Under lifestyles theory, the most common examples of victimization risk being affected by lifestyle choices surround activities in __________.

taverns and bars

Lifestyles theory does not explain why victimization patterns differ between men and women and stands as a better explanation of __________ victimization patterns.

male

Routine activities theory posits that crime requires three elements: a motivated offender, a suitable target, and a lack of __________.

capable guardianship

Routine activities theory was developed by Lawrence Cohen and __________.

Marcus Felson

In 1789, __________ was one of the first to advocate for incarceration as a form of punishment, arguing that punishment should fit the crime based on pleasure gained versus pain inflicted.

Jeremy Bentham

__________ deterrence occurs when an individual is directly punished for their deviant behaviour to dissuade them from further offending.

Specific

In deterrence theory, __________ refers to the speed at which punishment is administered in close temporal proximity to the commission of the crime.

celerity of punishment

In deterrence theory, __________ refers to the component where punishment consistently follows whenever an act of deviance is committed.

certainty of punishment

The rational choice perspective, which explains the offender's decision-making process based on perceived gain and cost, is associated with Derek Cornish and __________.

Ronald Clarke

The term 'situated transaction' was coined in 1963 by sociologist __________.

Erving Goffman

David Luckenbill developed situated transaction theory in 1977 after studying 70 transactions involving __________ homicides.

71

In the first stage of David Luckenbill's situated transaction theory, the eventual victim insults the __________ of the eventual offender.

honour

The specific term for a type of homicide in which a man kills his wife is __________.

uxoricide

The term for a homicide in which a person kills their spouse (either spouse by the other) is __________.

mariticide

Herbert Spencer coined the concept of social Darwinism, which suggests that social interaction is dominated by the principle of '__________.'

survival of the fittest

Early positivist criminologist __________ was the first to step away from the idea that all criminals made conscious decisions, arguing that some were predisposed due to improper evolution.

Cesare Lombroso

In the positivist school of thought, features that are internal to the body and cannot be changed, such as skin tone or biological predispositions, are called __________ features.

innate

Feminist criminologists argue that victimization power dynamics are rooted in patriarchal, __________ structures.

hegemonic

In 1982, __________ noted that gender remains largely unexplored in traditional criminological theories, which risk blaming victims for factors they cannot alter.

Leonard

Control theory asserts that offenders engage in criminal activities and victims experience vulnerability because of low levels of __________.

self-control

A study of 66 studies by Pratt, Turanovic, Fox, and Wright (2014) found that the relationship between lack of self-control and victimization was __________.

indirect

Gresham Sykes and David Matza (1957) argued that delinquents use techniques of __________ to deflect guilt and rationalize their criminal conduct.

neutralization

An intoxicated person blaming bad weather for a car accident they caused is an example of the technique of neutralization known as denial of __________.

responsibility

When an offender minimizes the impact of an assault by claiming the victim's physical injuries were minor despite hospitalization, they are demonstrating denial of __________.

injury

A cyberstalker asserting that 'no one was really hurt' because they never physically touched the victim is using the denial of __________ neutralization technique.

victim

An embezzler stating that they 'had to' steal company money to cover a gambling debt is using the neutralization technique called defense of __________.

necessity

A repeat violent offender who asserts that they are 'a good person' despite their offences is using the neutralization technique known as defending the __________.

ledger

David Matza (1964) referred to the process of moving away from conformist constraints into delinquent behavior as __________.

drift

In 1902, Charles Horton Cooley asserted that individuals possess a '__________ self,' forming judgments of themselves based on how others observe them.

looking glass

George Herbert Mead's concept of the 'socialized self' is divided into the spontaneous 'I' and the socially restrained self called '__________.'

me

In 1938, Frank Tannenbaum introduced the concept that being '__________' as a delinquent by others often leads to further delinquency.

tagged

Edwin Lemert (1951) coined labelling theory and defined __________ deviance as initial participation in an act outside the norm before adopting a deviant identity.

primary

According to Edwin Lemert, once an individual accepts a label of deviance or 'otherness' and acts accordingly in society, they are engaging in __________ deviance.

secondary

The psychoanalytic perspective of human psychological development stems from the work of __________, focusing on repressed childhood drives and defence mechanisms.

Sigmund Freud

Behaviorist explanations of mental health and conditioning in response to environmental stimuli and reinforcements are rooted in the work of __________.

B. F. Skinner

Classical School of Thought

A criminological perspective assuming that individuals who commit crimes or experience victimization are active, rational participants whose decisions over the life course influence their outcomes.

Criminal Event Perspective

An organizing framework put forth by Vince Sacco and Leslie Kennedy asserting that crime must be examined in a larger social context across three distinct stages: precursors, transaction, and aftermath.

Criminal Precursors

The first stage of the criminal event perspective, encompassing all pre-existing experiences, demographic factors, and background conditions that lead up to and influence the event.

Criminal Transaction

The second stage in the criminal event perspective, representing the relatively short interactive encounter during which the crime occurs, often lasting less than five minutes.

Aftermath of Crime

The third and final stage in the criminal event perspective, spanning a considerable period of time to examine how participants and the public respond to and cope with the victimization.

Target Hardening

The process by which potential victims are educated about criminal operations and take protective, proactive security measures to make themselves less suitable targets.

Lifestyles Theory

A rational choice theory developed by Hindelang, Gottfredson, and Garofalo positing that certain behavioural patterns and routines create an opportunistic structure for criminals.

Routine Activities Theory (RAT)

A rational choice theory developed by Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson stating that a crime occurs only when a motivated offender, a suitable target, and a lack of capable guardianship converge.

Deterrence Theory

A theory claiming that criminal acts are prevented by fear of sanctions, operating through two forms (specific and general) and three core punishment components (celerity, certainty, and severity).

Specific Deterrence

A form of deterrence occurring when an individual is directly punished for deviant behaviour and ceases offending out of fear of facing further punishment.

General Deterrence

A form of deterrence in which the broader public learns of an offender being punished and is dissuaded from committing deviant acts for fear of facing similar penalties.

Celerity of Punishment

A component of deterrence theory referring to the speed at which punishment is administered in close temporal proximity to the crime or apprehension.

Certainty of Punishment

A component of deterrence theory stating that punishment must consistently follow deviance so that potential offenders perceive the likelihood of being caught and penalized as high.

Severity of Punishment

A component of deterrence theory dictating that punishment must be measured and proportional—neither too lenient nor too harsh—to maximize its deterrent effect.

Rational Choice Perspective

A perspective associated with Derek Cornish and Ronald Clarke explaining that crime is the result of an offender's cognitive weighing of potential gains against the perceived costs of committing the act.

Situated Transaction Theory

A theory developed by David Luckenbill that locates crime in time and place, viewing homicide as the outcome of a dynamic six-stage interaction between participants in a shared setting.

Symbolic Interactionism

A theoretical perspective asserting that human interaction is based solely on the interpretation of culturally prescribed symbols, behaviours, and language communicated between individuals.

Uxoricide

A specific type of homicide in which a man kills his wife.

Mariticide

A type of homicide in which a person kills their spouse.

Social Darwinism

A concept coined by Herbert Spencer applying the evolutionary principle of 'survival of the fittest' to social life, assuming that preying on the weak is natural for societal progress.