memory of complex events (8)

drawing a blank, low-confidence recall, incorrect recall, false memories

4 types of memory errors

mandela effects

collective false memories that occur months/years after the original event

expectations, reality, short-delay or small scale memory errors

recall is partially driven by __________ and not __________, sometimes resulting in __________

fill in the blanks, expectations

when we can’t properly encode information, our minds will __________ based on our __________ which can cause errors

memory network, retrieval, less clear boundaries between memories

episodic memory can be viewed as a __________, which is helpful during __________ but also results in __________

associated knowledge, transplant, intrusion

it can be difficult to separate memory for a particular episode and its __________ which can result in __________ /__________ errors

intrusion errors

errors that involve knowledge from an unrelated event being erroneously included into the remembered event

transplant

intrusion errors are also called __________ errors

intrusion, overwrite previous connections

new memory connections can form through __________ and then __________

increased memory, understanding, intrusion errors

being given more context to a story results in __________ for the original story (because __________ benefits memory), but also increased __________

semantically, thematically similar

intrusion errors are particularly common when remembered information is __________ or __________ to the intrusion

deese-roediger-mcdermott procedure

task to remember a list of related words (with theme word not present) and later recall them

spread to the theme word, recalled, it was not present in the list

in a DRM procedure, activation from associated words will __________, making it likely to be __________ even though __________

90%, just as likely

DRM procedure participants remembered almost __________ of the words they encountered but were __________ to recall the list’s theme word

schematic knowledge

intrusions can also be due to __________

schema

expectations/knowledge based on what is typical or frequent in a given situation

script

a specialized schema that refers to a sequence of events

schemas, predictable, exact memory

__________ are helpful when remembering an event because typical experiences are __________ and can be reconstructed without __________

retrieval cues

you can use items in a schematic script as __________

memory regularization

when things that are expected in a given circumstance are added to the memory, even when they weren’t actually there

memory regularization

schemas/schematic knowledge can cause memory errors due to __________

75%

eyewitness errors contributed to at least __________ of false convictions that have been overturned in recent years

misinformation effect

occurs when a participant incorporates a false suggestion about an event into their memory of the event

imagery

__________ can increase confidence in a false memory

plausible, implausible, add to, replace

it is easier to plant __________ memories than __________ ones; it is also easier to __________ a memory than to __________ one

repetition, social cues, social pressure, confess to crimes they did not commit

false memories can be planted through __________, __________, and __________; this can lead people to __________

unavoidable, efficiency

memory errors are __________ and may be a small price to pay for __________

processing, informative, unexpected

using schemas makes __________ efficient by helping guide your attention towards what is __________ or __________ in the environment

keep info together, retrieval more efficient

merging related memories helps to __________ which then makes __________

schemas, merging related memories

2 methods by which memory processing and retrieval is made more efficient

forgetting

memory errors are different from __________

adaptive, where it is today

forgetting can be __________, such as forgetting where you parked your car yesterday so it doesn’t interfere with your memory of __________

memory acquisition, working memory, long-term memory

forgetting can be a failure in __________, where information falls out of __________ before the transfer to __________

decay, interference, retrieval failure

3 ways in which memories may weaken over time

decay

when memories fade or erode over time

interference

when newer learning disrupts older memories

retrieval failure

when a memory is intact but cannot be accessed

retention interval

the amount of time that elapsed between initial learning and subsequent retrieval

schematic knowledge, less reliable

with memory decay, __________ fills in older memories, making them __________

source monitoring

in memory decay, questioning whether you really remember something or if you’re just imagining it based on what you know

proactive interference

when previously learned information interferes with learning new information

retroactive interference

when newly learned information interferes with retrieval of previously learned information

ab-ad paradigm

example of proactive interference

retrieval cues

retrieval failure occurs when target information is in long-term memory, but we cannot find the right __________ (“tip of the tongue”)

misinformation, prone to errors, entirely or partially false

hypnosis makes people more open to __________ and more __________; recovered memories may be __________

cognitive interview, diverse set of retrieval cues

the best method to “undo” forgetting is a __________ using a __________

autobiographical memory

memory of episodes and events in a person’s own life

episodic memory

autobiographical memory is a component of __________

self-reference effect

we have better memory for information relevant to ourselves because this information is processed differently

flashbulb memories

memories for highly emotional and specific moments

amygdala, attention, rehearsal

in flashbulb memories, activation of the __________ promotes consolidation of memories and emotion helps narrow __________; there is also more __________ after emotional events

narrow attention, peripheral details

emotion helps to __________; however, this means that __________ of emotional events may be less well-remembered

large-scale errors

flashbulb memories can contain __________

consequentiality, alteration for conversation, co-witness contamination

3 reasons why flashbulb memories may not be accurate

smoother, incorporating others’ accounts

people may alter their accounts of an event through conversation to make their accounts __________ and/or by __________

co-witness contamination

a psychological phenomenon where witnesses to the same event discuss what happened and inadvertently alter or corrupt their own memories by absorbing details, errors, or beliefs from one another

too well, physiological arousal, stress

traumatic memories are often __________ remembered because consolidation is increased by __________ and __________

head injuries, sleep deprivation, substance use, stress

4 reasons why traumatic memories may be lost or error-prone

directly relevant to the source of stress, other details

stress can enhance memory for materials that are __________, but can undermine memory for __________

repression, voluntarily, retrieval failure

traumatic memories can be lost to __________, either __________ or due to ordinary __________

false memories

some memories reported as recovered from repression may be __________

leading questions, expectations

recovery of repressed memories can be promoted in therapy through __________ and __________