AP Psych Unit 2 Test

Psychodynamic View

-How unconscious thoughts and childhood experiences influence behavior

-Hidden feelings

-Sexual desires

-Sigmund Freud: The psychologist who developed psychoanalysis (type of therapy)

-Freudian slip: Accidentally saying something that might reveal a hidden thought or feeling

-Dream analysis: Freud believed dreams reveal hidden feelings and desires

-Therapist’s couch: Freud had patients lie on a couch and talk freely

-Extremely influential

-Ex. A student fears failure because they are afraid of disappointing their parents

Behavioral View

-Our behavior is learned through our experiences and environment

-Role of environment

-Focus solely on observable behaviors

-John B. Watson: Helped establish behaviorism

-B.F. Skinner: Studied how consequences affect behavior

-Positive reinforcement: Giving a reward to encourage a behavior to happen again

-Ex. A student studies because they receive rewards for good grades

Humanistic View

-People have the ability to make choices, grow, and reach their potential

-Carl Rogers

-Abraham Maslow

-This perspective focuses on each person’s unique qualities and experiences

-Ex. A student studies because they want to reach their full potential

Cognitive View

-Our thoughts, memories, and interpretations influence how we behave and feel

-Jean Piaget

-Albert Ellis

-Psychologists study mental processes

-Thinking, perceptions, memories, AND the unconscious

-Ex. A student feels nervous because they think they will fail the test

Biological View

-How the brain, genes, hormones, and nervous system influence behavior

-Role of physiological processes

-Ex. A student’s heart beats faster because of the body’s stress response

Evolutionary View

-Looks at how behavior may have developed to help humans survive

-Genes can influence certain behaviors

-Behaviors that help survival may continue through generations

-Ex. A person feels afraid of danger because fear helps humans survive

Sociocultural View

-Looks at how society and culture affect behavior

-Different cultures may have different ideas about how people should behave

-A student studies hard because their family and culture value academic success

Experimental Psychology

-Mainly focuses on research and understanding behavior

-Comparative: Compares behavior between different species

-Developmental: Studies how people change throughout their lives

-Animal Learning: Studies how animals learn behaviors

-Social: Studies how people interact with each other

-Personality: Studies personality traits and differences between people

Applied Psychology

-Uses what we know about psychology to solve real-world problems

-Industrial/Organizational: Psychology in the workplace

-Ex. Helping employees be happier and more productive

-School: Helps students with learning and school-related problems

-Consumer: Studies why people buy things

-Ex. Understanding what makes someone want to buy a product

-Clinical: Works with people who have mental or emotional disorders

-Counseling: Helping people manage problems in their lives

The Scientific Method

Question —> Research —> Hypothesis —> Experiment —> Analyze Results —> Conclusion —> Report

-If the hypothesis is wrong or partially true: You think about what went wrong, change the idea, and try again

Descriptive Studies

-Non-experimental

-Describe behaviors as they naturally occur

1. Naturalistic Observation

-Observe behavior in its natural environment without interference

-Advantages: Shows how people behave naturally

-Disadvantages: Little control over conditions, ethical concerns may arise

-KEYWORDS: Natural environment, no interference, real world, behaviors recorded

2. Case Studies

-Collect detailed information about one person or a small group

-Advantages: Provides lots of information about rare or unusual cases

-Disadvantages: Difficult to generalize findings (studying one person or a small group may not represent everyone), may lack objectivity (the researcher’s personal opinions or biases may affect conclusions)

-KEYWORDS: In-depth, individual, small group, rare or unusual cases, detailed information

Longitudinal Study

-Studies the same group over a long period of time

-Advantages: Tracks developmental changes over time, studies the long-term effects of an intervention

-Disadvantages: Time-consuming, participants may quit the study (attrition), expensive

3. Correlational Research

-Studies the relationship between two variables

-KEYWORDS: Relationship between, linked to, associated with, correlation

-Important: Correlation does not prove causation

Correlation Coefficient

-A number between -1 and +1 that measures the strength and direction of a relationship

-1 —> Negative Correlation (One increases while the other decreases)

0 —> No Linear Correlation

+1 —> Positive Correlation (Both increase or decrease together)

Strength: The closer the number is to -1 or +1, the stronger the correlation

Ex. -0.90 vs. +0.63

Which is stronger?

Answer= -0.90 because it is closer to -1

Experimentation

-Most powerful method

-A research method that manipulates and measures variables to test cause and effect

-Control variables to determine whether one variable causes a change in another

-KEYWORDS: Random, assignment, control group, independent/dependent variable, cause and effect

Independent Variable

-The variable manipulated by the researcher

Dependent Variable

-The outcome measured by the researcher

Confounding Variable

-A uncontrolled factor that affects the results

Control Condition/Group

-Does not receive the independent variable or treatment being tested

Experimental Condition/Group

-Receives the independent variable or treatment being tested

Confounds

-Unintended Impact

Operational Definition

-Explains exactly how a variable will be measured in a study

-Must be measured by a number

-Create imaginary scenarios

-Ex. A study examining whether study time affects test scores:

Variable 1: The total number of minutes recorded on a stopwatch spent reading class notes.

Variable 2: The score (out of 100) earned on a 10-question multiple-choice quiz.

-Ex. Self-report Questionnaire, Scale from 1-10, Amount of Time

FORMULA: Measurement Method + Specific Score or Unit + Timeframe or Context

Elements of a Successful Experiment

-Conclude that the independent variable likely caused a change in the dependent variable

-Random Sample: Every member has an equal chance of being selected from the larger population

-Eliminates bias

-Increases representativeness

-Random Assignment: Participants have an equal chance of being placed in either the experimental or control group

-Controls confounds

-Supports cause and effect

-Double Blind Study: Neither the researcher nor the participant knows who is in which group

-Prevents experimenter bias

-Controls for the placebo effect

-Follow ethical guidelines

Ethical Guidelines

-Informed Consent:

-Purpose of research

-Expected duration

-Procedural information

-Right to Decline

-No Harm

-Debrief:

-Elements of the study described