AP Biology term 1 test

Chi square analysis

statistical measure to determine how well the data fits a predicted model

• are the deviations significant or due to chance?

• can the null hypothesis be rejected?

null hypothesis

statement that suggests there is NO relationship between variables

• when the null hypothesis is supported or failed to be rejected, the variable is significant

animal behavior

sum of an organism’s responses to external and internal stimuli and environmental changes

• essential for finding a partner and food

proximate cause

how a behavior occurs/ what environmental stimuli

ultimate cause

why a behavior occurs in the context of natural selection

fixed action pattern

a sequence of unlearned acts directly linked to simple stimulus

sign stimulus

an external cue that triggers behavior

signal

a stimulus transmitted from one organism to another

innate behavior

simple behaviors in response to signals performed the same way each time

learned behavior

complex behavior that is modified by experience

kinesis

non directional response

taxis

directional response, negative/ away, positive/towards

cladistics

science that shows how living organisms are related through a common ancestor

outgroup

outer or least related to the others

monophyletic

characteristics that have evolved once

polyphyletic

characteristics that have evolved multiple times separately

paraphyletic

clade without one or more descendents

convergent evolution

polyphyletic traits - distantly related but evolved similarly through similar pressures

divergent evolution

acts on monophyletic traits - evolving differently with different environments

parallel evolution

closely related species evolve similar phenotypes

principle of parsimony

simplest explanation prevails without contradictory evidence

naming species

1. last name of genus

2. unique to the species

phylogeny

evolutionary history of a species or group of related species

binomial nomenclature

uses genus and species to give each organism a universal two part scientific name

shared ancestral trait

shared by members of a particular clade that originated in an ancestor that is not a member of that clade

shared derived trait

evolutionary properties unique to a particular clade

horizontal gene transfer

movement of genetic material between organisms rather than vertical descent from parent to offspring

Viruses and characteristics of life

independent

• genetic code

• respond to stimuli

• evolve

with a host

• reproduction

• metabolism

  • cannot complete its life cycle without existing within a host cell

Virus structure

1. genetic material

2. capsid

3. structure capable of cell interaction

4. membrane (sometimes)

phage

structure to allow for latching on and injecting genetic material

capsid

protects all viruses and is made of proteins

envelope

additional layer that can help disguise a virus

genetic material of virsuses

varying types of DNA and RNA

• DNA: host cells that directly transcribe

• RNA: host cells that directly translate

retrovirus

RNA →DNA→RNA

• goes into the cell’s DNA and attacks attaches themselves and mutates which eventually kills the cells

lysogenic replication

integrates viral DNA into host genome to replicate passively

lytic replication

destroys the host cell to release new virus particles - active replication

antivirals vs antibiotics

antivirals: target entry to a host then the host’s ability to replicate

antibiotics: targets bacteria

breaking down central Dogma

DNA→RNA→protein

• uses reverse transcriptase to copy RNA into DNA

Miller Urey experiment

primordial soup, tested whether life's building blocks could form naturally from nonliving inorganic matter under early Earth conditions

• discovered amino acids

• first signs of life from organic molecules

RNA world

• organic molecules could have led to RNA

• self replication to code enzymes which evolved through mutation

self assembly

• developed cell walls

• inputs from environment to assemble or disassemble

Larmark’s ideas

• evolution is because of a need and is goal directed

• individuals can evolve

darwin/wallace

• genetic variation exists and is selected upon

• population evolves

evidence for evolution

• fossils

• adaptive traits

• embryological evidence

  • only later does the differentiation between embryos occur

• vestigial structures

  • structure that no longer serves a purpose

modes of selection

• selection for mean

  • lowers diversity

• selection for one extreme

  • maintains and shifts diversity

• selection for both extremes

  • leads to speciation

query cover

percent of the DNA that aligns

• increased is great if the sequences align

• decreased is okay if the portion that overlaps is significant

e value

statistical value

• closer to zero = alignment is significant

percent identity

of the percent aligned (query cover) what percent is identical

• want a high percent identity

carbon cycle

• Photosynthesis: Plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and use sunlight to turn it into glucose and oxygen.

• Respiration: Plants, animals, and other living things break down glucose for energy, releasing CO₂ back into the air or water.

• Decomposition: Fungi, bacteria, and other decomposers break down dead plants and animals, returning carbon to the soil and atmosphere.

• Combustion: Burning organic matter—such as wood, wildfires, or fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas)—releases stored carbon quickly into the atmosphere as CO₂.

• Ocean Exchange: The oceans absorb and release CO₂ at the surface, acting as a massive carbon sink where marine organisms also use carbon to build shells

isomers

same formula but different molecular arrangement

functional groups

groups of atoms that alter the functions

• carboxyl: makes a molecule polar, acidic

• phosphate: transfer energy

• methyl: non polar

• amino: basic

dehydration synthesis

combining monomers to form dimers

• anabolic - input of energy

hydrolysis

breaking down polymers into monomers which releases energy

covalent bonds

form when atoms share electrons

• strong bonds

• polar or non polar

• Ex: bonds between O and H in H2O

ionic bonds

form when electrons are transferred between atoms

• opposites attract

hydrogen bonds

weaker attraction between a partially positive hydrogen atom and a partially negative

carbon structure

• can bond with any types of bonds

• organic molecules are ones based on carbon

• carbon skeletons serve as a raw material for synthesis of other organic molecules

Carbs elements

CHO

carb dehydration synthesis

glycosidic bonds

dimer= 2 monomers joined

polymer=more than 2 monomers

monomers

fructose, galactose, glucose (most common)

C=O carbonyl group

-OH hydroxyl group

polymers

cellulose - hydrogen bonds, straight chains, structural polysaccharide

glycogen - short term energy storage

starch - weak bonding, coiled shape, storage polysaccharide

lipid elements

CHO

lipid dehydration synthesis

ester bond - glycerol + fatty acid

lipid monomers

glycerol C3H8O3

fatty acid chain

lipid polymers

triglyceride - long term energy

phospholipid - form cell membranes

steroid - hormones, signaling, cholesterol, build/ maintain cell membranes

protein elements

CHONS

protein dehydration synthesis

carbonyl group → peptide bond

protein monomers

central carbon, amino group, carboxyl group, R goup

protein polymers

• 2 central carbon

enzymes - speeds up chemical reactions

transport proteins - carry molecules across cell membrane

structural proteins - support shape and strength to cells and organs

nucleic acid elements

CHONP

• prokaryotic - found in cytoplasm, no nuclear membrane

nucleic acid dehydration synthesis

• hydrogen bonds connect nitrogen bonds

• sugar and phosphates connect to form chains of nucleotides

nucleic acid monomers

nucleotides

1. phosphate group

2. pentose sugar

3. nitrogenous base

nucleic acid polymers

DNA

• sugar: deoxyribose

• double stranded

• creates RNA through transcription

• AGCT

• functions

  • stores genetic information

  • copying segment DNA into RNA

RNA

• ribose

• single stranded

• AGUC

• functions

  • reads mRNA sequence to build amino acid chains