AP Psychology Unit 5 (Cognitive Psychology) (copy)

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Information-processing model

A model of memory processing

Encoding

The process of storing information into working memory then into long-term memory

Storage

The storage of memories

Retrieval

The process of taking memories from long-term memory into short-term/working memory

Sensory memory

A extremely brief form of memory that is very detailed but soon forgotten if not encoded into short-term/working memory

Short-term memory

A temporary form of memory that can only store a small amount of information (~7 pieces) before the information is forgotten or encoded into long-term memory

Long-term memory

A practically infinitely large and long-lasting memory storage system

Working memory

An updated view of short-term memory that recognizes the active processing of information that occurs in short-term memory

Automatic processing

Processing of information that occurs without conscious effort, used for creating implicit/nondeclarative memories

Explicit memory

Memories that are made with conscious effort through effortful processing

Declarative memory

Memories that are made with conscious effort through effortful processing

Effortful processing

Processing of information that occurs consciously, used for creating explicit/declarative memories

Implicit memory

Memories that are made without conscious effort through automatic processing

Nondeclarative memory

Memories that are made without conscious effort through automatic processing

Procedural memory

A type of implicit memory focused on skills and associations

Iconic memory

Extremely detailed visual memory that lasts for a very short period of time

Echoic memory

Auditory memory that lasts for a few seconds

Chunking

Organizing information by chunking it into meaningful groups, often done automatically

Mnemonics

Using techniques, such as imagery, to more efficiently memorize information

Spacing effect

A phenomenon where spacing out encoding allows for better retention over a long period of time

Testing effect

A phenomenon where forcing yourself to recall or recognize information (i.e testing yourself) leads to better retention than simply rereading the material

Shallow processing

Encoding information based on its surface level appearance

Deep processing

Encoding information based on its meaning and relating it to previously known information

Infantile amnesia

Long-lasting explicit memories begin to be formed after 3 years of age, meaning your oldest memories go back to a maximum of when you were 3

Flashbulb memory

Highly detailed memories formed during times of high emotions

Long-term potentiation

The strengthening of neural synapses after repeated stimulation. Plays a critical role is learning and memory

Recall

The ability to remember information without any cues

Recognition

The ability to point out learned information when presented with it

Context-dependent memory

Memory that is encoded with a location, thus making retrieval of the memory easier when associated with that location

State-dependent memory

Memory that is encoded with a particular physiological state, thus making retrieval of the memory easier when in that physical state

Mood congruent memory

A tendency to more easily recall memories that align with a person's current mood

Serial position effect

A tendency to more easily recall information at the beginning and end of a list

Recency effect

A tendency to more easily recall information at the end of a list

Primacy effect

A tendency to more easily recall information at the beginning of the list

Retrograde amnesia

Inability to recall memories from the past

Anterograde amnesia

Inability to create new memories

Proactive interference

Being unable to recall new information due to old information

Retroactive interference

Being unable to recall old information due to new information

Misinformation effect

The phenomenon where misleading or incorrect information can affect memories

Source amnesia

Misattributing the source of a memory

deja vu

A phenomenon where a person believes they have experienced something before at the exact same time and place

déjà vu

A phenomenon where a person believes they have experienced something before at the exact same time and place

Reconsolidation

The process of the brain changing memories every time they are recalled

Prototype

A person's mental image of the most fitting example of a category

Creativity

The ability to create new/novel ideas

Convergent thinking

A type of thinking that involves finding the only or best solution to a problem

Divergent thinking

A type of thinking that involves finding as many viable and creative solutions to a problem

Algorithm

A logical process of finding a solution. Typically takes longer but is guaranteed to find a solution

Heuristic

A quicker process of finding a solution. Uses simpler thinking which may be subject to errors

Mental set

The tendency to use solutions that have worked before instead of attempting new ones

Representativeness heuristic

A tendency to estimate probability based on how well items fit our prototype, overriding logic and statistics

Availability heuristic

A tendency to estimate probability based on the most memorable information, overriding logic and statistics

Belief perseverance

A phenomenon where a person refuses to give up a belief despite contradicting evidence

Framing

How information is presented

Fixation

Unit 5: The inability to perceive a problem from a different point of view. Unit 7: Freud's idea that the pleasures from a psychosexual stage could linger with a person into adulthood, changing personality and behavior

Functional fixedness

The inability to see additional functions of a tool beyond it's intended function

Phoneme

Smallest unit of sound

Morpheme

Smallest unit of meaningful sound

Grammar

The rules of a language system

Syntax

The rules of how to order words into sentences

Semantics

The rules of how to understand words

Babbling stage

The initial stage of speech development when babies make various sounds

One-word stage

The second stage of speech development when babies communicate meaning through singular words

Two-word stage

The third stage of speech development when babies communicate meaning through two word "sentences"

Telegraphic stage

The third stage of speech development when babies communicate meaning through two word "sentences"

Noam Chomsky

Known for his idea of universal grammar

Universal grammar

The idea that humans are "hardwired" to learn language and there are some basic elements of all human language

Benjamin Lee Whorf

Known for his idea of linguistic determinism

Linguistic determinism

The idea that language determines how people think

Critical period

Unit 5: A time period when it is easiest to learn something. Unit 6: A time frame in an organism's development where certain experiences will lead to normal development

Linguistic relativism

A more modest view of linguistic determinism; suggests language influences how people think

Intelligence

The ability to learn, solve problems, and adapt

Intelligence test

Tests that are designed to measure a person's intelligence

General intelligence

Charles Spearman's belief of a single underlying intelligence factor that is measured by every type of intelligence test

g-score

Charles Spearman's belief of a single underlying intelligence factor that is measured by every type of intelligence test

Factor analysis

A measure of a person's total "score" by identifying clusters of related items called factors

Charles Spearman

Known for his belief in a general intelligence (g-score)

Howard Gardner

Known for his theory of 8 intelligences

Savant syndrome

A condition where a person has incredible abilities in some areas while lacking other basic abilities

Robert Sternberg

Known for his theory of 3 intelligences, known as the triarchic theory

Emotional intelligence

The ability to use, manage, understand, and perceive emotions

Triarchic theory of intelligence

A theory of intelligence proposed by Robert Sternberg. Proposed the idea of analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.

Francis Galton

English scientist that attempted to find a simple intelligence measure

Alfred Binet

Created the original Stanford-Binet intelligence test to help Parisian schoolchildren. Later modified by Lewis Terman

Mental age

The chronological age a person's intelligence most closely fits in. Created by Alfred Binet

Stanford-Binet intelligence test

An intelligence test created by Alfred Binet and Lewis Terman originally designed to improve French schoolchildren's education and later adapted to be used as a tool to measure intelligence

IQ

A general measure of intelligence created by William Stern calculated by dividing mental age by chronological age and then multiplying by 100

Intelligence quotient

A general measure of intelligence created by William Stern calculated by dividing mental age by chronological age and then multiplying by 100

William Stern

German psychologist that created the intelligence quotient (IQ)

Eugenics

The idea that people's abilities and defects should be measured to allow only the most capable people to reproduce

Achievement test

Tests that are designed to determine how much a person knows

Aptitude test

Tests that are designed to determine what a person can learn

David Wechsler

Creator of the highly popular Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

An intelligence test created by David Wechsler

WAIS

An intelligence test created by David Wechsler

Standardization

The process of creating valid testing procedures by comparing scores to a pretested group

Flynn effect

A phenomenon named after James Flynn that says IQ scores rise in a population over time

Content validity

A test's questions relate to what it is trying to measure

Predictivity validity

A test can predict what it tries to predict

Lewis Terman

Modified Alfred Binet's test to create the modern Stanford-Binet intelligence test