Psychology - Unit 1: Research methods and ethics (FIRST DRAFT)

Psychology

The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes, and it studies both the observable and the unobservable.

Science

• Built on empirical research (evidence) using the scientific method

• Objective (not biased)

• Testable/Falsifiable 

• Replicable 

• Control of extraneous variable

How is psychology divided?

Qualitative and more quantitative approaches

3 key features of scientific evidence

1. Falsifiability - possible to prove wrong

2. Replicability - independent attempts to replicate findings to verify/identify errors

3. Objectivity - based on verifiable facts, not opinions or what we want/hope

Sampling bias

Whether the sample leads to participants who are reflective of the target population they are trying to study

Cultural bias

Tendency to interpret and evaluate phenomena based on the norms and values of one's own culture, p

Confirmation bias

The tendency for researchers to do/interpret findings in a way that leads to the answers they expected to see

P-Hacking

When a researcher tries to find patterns in their collected data that can be presented as statistically significant, without first positing a specific hypothesis.

Reporting bias

Refers to the distortion or partiality that occurs when information is selectively reported, emphasized, or omitted in media, research, or other communication. This misrepresents reality.

Experimenter bias

Happens during the data collection phase, when the researcher’s expectations or behavior unintentionally influence the participants’ performance or responses.

Social desirabillity bias

The pressure to answer/act in ways seen as good by societal norms

Dominant response bias

When a single participant in a group setting dominates the discussion, influencing the responses of other participants

Demand characteristics

When participants are aware of the aims of the research and adapt their behaviour accordingly.

Expectancy effect

When a participant acts a certain way because he wants to do what the researcher asks

Screw You effect

Occurs when a participant attempts to figure out the researcher's hypothesis, but only in order to destroy the credibility of the study. 

Reactivity

When participants simply act differently because they are being observed. The change may be positive or negative depending on the situation

Publication bias

Selective publication of research studies based on their results, usually ones with positive results (ie support the hypothesis)

Recall bias

Do not accurately remember a past event or experience or leaving out det

Gender bias

Tendency to judge phenomena through the lens of gender, potentially leading to a misinterpretation of behaviours and attitudes. 

Bias

Refers to systematic errors in thinking, research and practice that can affect the validity and reliability of psychological findings. Always has a source.

Bias vs. perspective

BIAS	PERSPECTIVE
Unconscious and unintentional Consists of systematic errors that distort the truth Comprises the accuracy, validity, and reliability of research findings	Consciously adopted and intentional Comprises subjective viewpoints that provide different angles on the truth Enhances the depth, diversity and richness of interpretations and theories.

3 main sources of bias

1. Researcher

2. Participant

3. Systematic

How to control researcher bias

• Researchers should decide on a hypothesis before carrying out their research. Don’t adjust your hypothesis to fit your aim.

• To control for confirmation bias, researchers can use researcher triangulation to improve inter-rater reliability. We have other researchers check if we all saw the same thing!

• A double-blind control is the standard control for researcher bias. In a double-blind control, the participants are randomly allocated to an experimental and a control group. 

• The participants are not aware of which group they are in, and researchers don’t know either.  

• In addition, a third party knows which participants received which treatment, so the researcher who will examine and interpret the data does not know who received which treatment.

Types of bias present in researcher bias

• Sampling bias affects population validity/accuracy of sample-population generalizability

• Cultural bias

• Confirmation bias

• P-hacking

• Reporting bias

• Experimenter bias

How to control participant bias

• Use an independent samples design. By not being exposed to both conditions, participants are less likely to figure out the goal of the experiment.

• During the debriefing, be sure to ask the participants if they know what was being tested.  If they answer yes, this may have an influence on the results.

• Deception is often used in experiments in order to avoid demand characteristics; however, this may lead to ethical problems if the deception leads to undue stress or harm of the participant.

• Discussing methodological considerations is one of the key evaluative strategies when discussing research.

Types of bias present in participant bias

• Social desirability bias

• Dominant response bias

• Demand characteristics

• Expectancy effect

• Screw you effect

• Reactivity

Types of bias present in systematic bias

Cultural and publication bias

(General) controlling bias in psychology

• Blind and double blind procedures prevent expimernter and particpant biases

• Random sampling and random allocation ensure presentative samples and unbiased distribution of participants in experimental conditions.

• Cross-cultural research strives to understand cultural differences and avoid ethnocentrism

• Emic approatches to researcher strive to avoid imposing one’s own cultural values and beliefs on other culture

• Reseracher triangulation involves researchers fromv aried backgrounds to provie different perspectives and reduce biases 

Six key concepts in IB psychology

Bias, measurement, casuality, perspective, change, responsibility

What is casuality

Relationship where one variable is the cause of another specifically, understanding the nature of the relationship, such as if its direct or indirect , short term or long term or if factors interact.

Is correlation causation?

No

Correlation

A correlation coefficient is a number that describes the strength/direction of a linear relationship between two variables

What’s another factor impacting casuality?

Bi directionality. Ex - Do hours of sleep impact stress levels? OR Do stress levels impact hours of sleep?

Linear causality

• An IV is manipulated and its different on a DV is measured under a controlled conditions

• Direct link between cause and effect

• Clear beginning and end

• Realiable and highly predictable

Domino causality

• Cause and effect relationships where an effect becomes the cause of another effect. 

• A sequential unfolding of effects over time

• Extended linear pattern that results in direct and indirect effects

• The first cause is not always a direct cause of an effect and may lead to several other effects. 

• Helps explain why not everyone has the same effect from the same first cause.

Cyclical causality

• The cause leads to an effect that causes the “originial cause”

• Cyclical relationship 

Operationalization of variables

Refers to the way we choose to define abstract concepts in order to measure them.

Validity

Refers to the extent to which a study accurately measures what it intends to measure. A study is valid if the results genuinely reflect the real-world behavior or psychological construct being investigated.

Credibility

Is the trustworthiness or believability of a study’s findings. It often depends on the quality of the research design, the triangulation of methods, and whether the conclusions are well-supported by the data.

Research choice method

Psychologists must carefully choose methods that best capture the specific behavior or mental process they're investigating. 

Controls

Refer to the ability of researchers to hone in on one particular variable in order to understand it well.  In quantitative research, we control extraneous variables.

What is measurement

• How we gain knowledge, and the quality of measurement affects the depth and objectivity of knowledge

• Applying to both quantitative and qualitative research 

What is objective measurement based on

Based on observable, verifiable facts, using standardized methods or tools that ensure consistency and reliabiliy

Triangulation of method allows..

for researchers to establish the credibility of their findings

Measurements can be either..

Direct or indirect

Change

A process through which something becomes different

What are the two forms of change?

Purposeful intervention and natural development

What is purposeful intervention

• Changes that result from deliberate actions 

• Psychological research often strives to find better ways for us to do things.

• Explaining something (casuality) often gives us the opportunity to predict and control it, which relates to change

What is natural development

Changes that occur naturally over time

What is perspective

Differnt perspectives reveal different aspects of an object or phenomen, leading to a more complete understanding.

Main 3 types of perspectives

Biological, cognitive and sociocultural approaches

What is biological perspectives?

Influence of genetics, brain structures, neurotransmitters, and other biological factors on behaviour

What is cognitive perspectives?

Examines mental processes such as thinking, memory, perception and problem solving focusing on how people process information and how it influences behaviour

What is bheavioural perspectives?

Studies observable bevhiours and how they’re learned through interactions with the environment

What is psychodynamic perspectives?

Empahsizes influence of unconsciou processes, early childhood experiences and interpersonal relationships on behaviour.

What is humanistic perspectives?

Focuses on individual potential and stresses the importance of growth and self-actualization. 

What is sociocultural perspectives?

Examines how social and cultural influences affect behaviour and mental processes, considering factors such as ethnicity, gender and socioecnomic status. 

What is evolutionary perspectives?

Emphasizes the interplay between individuals and their envionrments, focusing on how enviornmntal factors influence behaviour, development and mental processes. 

What is cross-cultural pesrpectives?

Emphasizes understanding psychology through the lens of cultural diversity. 

Positivity vs. interpretivism

Positivism	Interpretivism
Aim is to identify general laws that apply to all huma behaiovurs Focus on objectivity - studying only what can be measured. Uses quantitative research methods. Tendency to take a reductionist approach to behaviour, examining how single variables may cause specific behaviours.  Employs a deductive approach to research	Aim is to understand ht elives and experiences of individuals and identify reasons for why they act the way they do Studies what cannot directly be observed, reliant on qualitative research methods Hollistic approach to behavour, examining how everal sepcts of an individual’s life may influence on current behaviour Employs an inductive approach

What is responsibility?

• Duty to consider the ethics of research and practice

• Psychologists bear responsibility for both the process and consequences of their research. 

How is responsibility linked to ethical considerations?

• In conducting resrach: Issues like deception, informed consent, protection from harm 

• In reporting results: ensuring ethical reporting to participants and the wider community

• In applying and disseminating findings: ethically handling data, publishing socially sensitive issues, ensuring public understanding of research, protecting minority groups from stigma and advocating for policy changes based on research. 

What is quantitative data?

Data that is..

• Numerical/measurabe

• Goal = test ideas

• Nomothetic approach

• Objective (unbiased)

What is qualitative data?

Data that is..

• Non-numerical (words, observations, inferences)

• Goal = describe and understand

• Idiographic approach 

• Subjective

What are the 6 different reserach methods?

Experiments, observations, survey, interviews, correlations, and case studies

What type of data is experiments?

QUAN

Goal of an experiment

To determine whether a cause-and-effect relationship exists between two variables: The Independent Variable (IV) and the Dependent Variable (DV).  

What are lab experiments?

Lab experiments are a type of true experiment where the researcher manipulates the IV and the study takes place in a controlled environment.

What are true experiments?

Randomly allocates participants to the different ‘conditions’ of the IV.  

• With random allocation, participants have the same chance of being assigned to the experimental or the control condition

What is a hypotheses?

The hypothesis is a prediction of how the independent variable affects the dependent variable.

It is important to formulate both..

null hypothesis and experimental hypothesis

What is a null hypothesis?

States that the IV will have no effect on the DV, or that any change in the IV will be due to chance.

What is research design?

For both lab and field experiments, researchers will choose a ‘research design’ which refers to how the independent variable is manipulated.

What are 3 of the common designs?

1. The independent samples/groups design uses two separate groups of participants. 

2. The repeated measures design exposes participants to each condition making up the Independent Variable.

3. Matched pair designs are similar to an independent samples design, but researchers match individuals on specific characteristics, such as ability or age. This is to ensure that both groups are roughly even, to control for any effects this might have on the findings (e.g. you couldn’t want to test how good 2 therapies are using one group of mostly adults compared to a group of mostly preteens).

True experiments: field?

When we do experiments that the researcher controls outside of the laboratory, in the "real world", this is called a field experiment. 

Field experiments take place in a natural environment and so they have two key limitations

• They cannot control fully for extraneous variables and they cannot be easily replicated.

• It is often not practical to get informed consent.

• People may be observed in public spaces where they would expect to be observed by others. 

• The other ethical concern is debriefing. 

• Often the nature of field experiments makes it impossible to explain to the unwary participants what has just happened.

What is a quasi-experiment?

In Quasi Experiments, participants are grouped based on a pre-existing trait or behaviour that the researcher can’t control or alter. These are somewhat fixed characteristics of the participants themselves so the researcher can’t alter them, or it wouldn’t be ethical to try.  

What is a natural experiment?

Refers to a type of quasi-experiment where the independent variable is something that changes within the environment; i.e., it is a naturally occurring change. 

How does natural experiment work?

Work on a pre-test, post-test design - that is, behaviour is measured both before and after the variable was introduced.  

Difference between natural and quasi experiments

• natural experiments study the effects of a naturally occurring change in the environment, whereas quasi experiments typically focus on comparing differences in behaviour between two demographics of people.

• Quasi experiments do NOT show direct causation, but they are able to imply a causal relationship between an IV and a DV.  Further research would be needed.

What is a extraneous variable?

Also called confounding variables - are undesirable variables that influence the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

What is a demand characteristic?

Occur when participants act differently simply because they know that they are in a study. They may try to guess the aims of the study and act accordingly.

What is a expectancy effect?

The participant attempts to discern the experimenter's hypotheses with the goal of "helping" the researcher.  This may result in acting in a certain way or giving the "right answer."

What is a screw you effect?

The participant attempts to discern the experimenter's hypotheses, but only in order to destroy the credibility of the study.

What is a social desirability effect?

This is when the participant answers in a way that makes him/her look good to the researcher.  This is done to avoid embarrassment or judgement.

What is a participant variability?

Limitation of a study when characteristics of the sample affect the dependent variable. This can be controlled for by selecting a random sample and randomly allocating the participants to the treatment and control groups.

What is ecological validity?

This is when the situation created is so unlikely to occur that one has to wonder if there is any validity in applying the findings beyond the study into the real world. 

How is ecological validity related to lab experiments?

Not all experiments have low ecological validity but because lab experiments are so highly controlled and take place in a laboratory setting, there is a higher likelihood of this resulting in a level of artificiality that means we can’t assume the behaviour would apply beyond this situation. 

What is a independent variable?

This is the variable (change) that the researcher deliberately manipulates. Each version of the variable is known as a ‘condition’.

What is the dependent variable?

Aka “measured variable.”  Changes in this variable are studied and it is assumed that the change in the IV was the cause of this.

What is a control group?

A standard baseline in an experiment that does not receive the test treatment

What is a experimental group?

The group in an experiment that receives the special treatment, change, or test variable being studied.

What is an extraneous variable?

Any factor in a research study or experiment that you are not actively studying, but that could still affect the results or the outcome. (IV AND DV) 

What is a uncontrolled variable?

Any extra factor in an experiment that is not kept the same.

What is a demand characteristic?

Occur when participants act differently simply because they know that they are in a study, may try to guess the aims of the study and act accordingly. 

How can reseracher bias be controlled?

Double blind control - In this design, not only do the participants not know whether they are in the experimental or control group, but the person carrying out the experiment does not know the aim of the study, nor which group is the treatment and which one the control group.

What is observation?

Data collection method which aims to describe behaviour without trying to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

What is natrualistic observations?

When most observations take place in a natural setting

Challenges of observations

1. It is not possible to record everything in the observational field. If you miss things in your measurement, your conclusions may not be as accurate. A good research question and a well trained team are essential if researchers hope to collect data that has value to their research.

2. it is important to try to avoid researcher bias - that is, the observation should not be affected by what the researcher expects to find. 

3. In order to counteract this problem, several observers can observe the same behaviour and then compare the results of their observations - this is often referred to as researcher triangulation.  

What is participant observation?

where he or she is part of the group that is being observed