Lecture 3: Mesopotamia in the Third Millennium: From Kingship to Empire

Flashcards covering the emergence of cuneiform writing, third-millennium Mesopotamian chronology, royal inscriptions, the rise of Lugalzagesi, and the Old Akkadian Empire.

What are the primary linguistic characteristics of the Sumerian language in early Mesopotamia?

Sumerian is a non-Semitic linguistic isolate (unrelated to any known language), was the first language to employ cuneiform writing technology, and later transitioned into an archaic, literary language.

What are the key linguistic features of Akkadian, and what later languages developed from it?

Akkadian is a Semitic language characterized by triliteral/triconsonantal verbal roots that adapted the cuneiform writing system; it served as the predecessor to Assyrian and Babylonian and their dialects.

What early artifact dating to circa $3500\text{ BC}$ demonstrates pictographic writing made with a sharp reed stylus?

The Kish tablet.

What does the literal term "cuneiform" mean, and how did its form originate?

It means "wedge-shaped" writing, which resulted from pressing a reed stylus into soft clay.

Which British scholar deciphered cuneiform script using the Trilingual Inscription of Behistun?

Henry Rawlinson.

Which three languages are carved on the cliff face of the Behistun Inscription dating to the reign of Darius ($r.\text{ }522\text{--}486\text{ BC}$)?

Old Persian, Babylonian, and Elamite.

What primary purposes did the earliest written records in early third millennium BC Mesopotamia serve?

They served as economic tabulations, receipts, year names in administrative texts, and royal inscriptions on monuments.

What does the Akkadian royal inscription on this brick stamp from Tello state?

"Naram-Sin [built] the house of Sin [moon god]".

What chronological periods comprise the Early Bronze Age ($3500\text{--}2000\text{ BC}$) urban phases in Mesopotamia?

The Uruk Period ($3500\text{--}3000\text{ BC}$), the Early Dynastic Period ($3000\text{--}2350\text{ BC}$), the Akkadian Period ($2350\text{--}2150\text{ BC}$), the Gutian Interlude ($2150\text{--}2100\text{ BC}$), and the Ur III Period ($2100\text{--}2000\text{ BC}$).

Does the term "Sumer" designate an ethnic identity in early Mesopotamian history?

No; Sumer designates a geographical region and a language (Sumerian), but it is explicitly not an ethnicity.

What did the Sumerian political titles "en", "ensi", "lu.gal", and "lu.gal.kalam.ma" mean?

"en" referred to a city leader with primarily a cultic role; "ensi" meant "governor" of a city; "lu.gal" meant "king" over a larger territory; and "lu.gal.kalam.ma" designated the "King of all the Land."

How did Lugalzagesi expand his power across Mesopotamia around $2350\text{ BC}$?

He began as the ensi of Umma, conquered Ur, Uruk, and Lagash to become lu.gal over most of Sumer, and launched campaigns into northern Mesopotamia and the northern Levant.

What is the etymology and meaning of the term "ziggurat"?

It derives from the Akkadian verb zaqāru, meaning "to raise up," designating raised, multi-tiered temple platforms.

What ancient architectural structure is shown in this $1924$ photograph before modern restoration?

The Ziggurat of Ur ($2100\text{ BC}$).

How were the regions of Sumer and Akkad geographically situated in southern Mesopotamia?

Sumer constituted the southern area, while Akkad occupied the northern area of lower Mesopotamia.

What are the three main categories of textual sources used to reconstruct the Akkadian Period?

Royal inscriptions (original statues/stelae and later Old Babylonian copies), year names, and the Sumerian King List.

What ancient artifact base is depicted here containing an Akkadian royal inscription?

The Bassetki Statue base, featuring an inscription of Naram-Sin.

How did the dating system of "year names" operate under the kings of Akkad?

Each calendar year was officially designated after a notable occurrence from the king's reign, such as a major military conquest, a construction project, or an administrative appointment.

What cuneiform prism artifact from the Ashmolean Museum preserves the Sumerian King List?

The Weld-Blundell Prism.

Why was the city of Nippur and its temple E-kur critical to Mesopotamian royal legitimacy?

Nippur was the seat of the god Enlil, who conferred kingship upon human rulers; defeating rivals and presenting them before Enlil at Nippur validated a ruler as legitimate king of Sumer and Akkad.

Which successive rulers made up the Old Akkadian Dynasty?

Sargon ($56\text{ years}$, $2340\text{--}2280\text{ BC}$), Rimush ($9\text{ years}$), Manishtusu ($15\text{ years}$), Naram-Sin ($37\text{ years}$), and Shar-kali-sharri ($25\text{ years}$).

What recurring domestic crisis did Rimush, Manishtusu, Naram-Sin, and Shar-kali-sharri all confront?

Rebellions in the south.

What major Akkadian royal monument inscribed in four columns is shown here?

The Manishtusu Obelisk.

What famous Akkadian monument commemorates a king's victory over the Lullubi people under astral deities?

The Victory Stele of Naram-Sin.

According to the "Legend of Sargon," what were the circumstances of Sargon's birth and youth?

His mother was a high priestess who secretly bore him in Azupiranu and set him adrift in a reed basket sealed with bitumen on the Euphrates; he was retrieved and raised by Akki, the drawer of water, before entering royal service.

What prominent Akkadian period artifact discovered at Nineveh is shown here?

A hollow-cast metal statue bust, possibly depicting Sargon or an Akkadian king.

What four core elements are identified as defining characteristics that turn a state into an "empire"?

A standing army, the creation of vassal states through force, supra-regional control, and political propaganda.