chapter 2 genetics revamped

Connective Tissue

-Extracellular tissue give it’s characteristics.

-a variety different cell types and sorrounding materials that protect, support, bind to cells, and fill in spaces throughout the body including cartilage, bone, blood, and fat.

Epithelium

-arrangement of cells give it’s characteristics.

-Tight cell layer forms linings that protect, secrete, absorb, and excrete.

Muscle

-cells that contract providing rigid movement against bones.

Smooth muscle- dilate your eyes and moves your gi tract.

Cardiac Muscle- move your heart.

Neurons

Neurons transmit information as electrochemical impulses that coordinate movement and sense response to environmental stimuli.

-Neuroglia supports and nourish neurons.

Somatic cells

Body cells.

Diploids 2n

Germ cells

-sperm and egg cells.

Haploids (N)

-meeting of sperm and eggs returns it back to it diploid state.

autosomes

are non sex chromosomes.

1-22.

Humans have how many haploid chromosomes

-23 haploid chromosomes.

Humans have how many diploid chromosomes.

Humans have 46 diploid chromsomes.

Self Renewal

stem cells giving rise to different stem cells and other stem cells.

Prokaryotes

cells don’t have nucleus or internal membrane

Eukaryote

-Has a nucleus and internal membrane.

Three domains of life

Archea, Bacteria, and Eukarya

Archea and Bacteria

-unicellular prokaryotes.

-Have no nucleus to contain DNA

-has ribosomes.

Eukarya

Unicellular and Multicellular eukaryotes.

-contains other organelles.

-contain a nucleus with DNA.

-contains Ribosomes.

Ribosomes

• site of protein synthesis.

• essemble RNA and Protein.

• Presents in all 3 domains of life.

Carbs

• major marcomolecule makes up cells.

• Building building blocks of monosaccharides.

• provide energy to cells and contribute to cellular structure.

• ex of carbs: sugar and starch

Polysaccharides.

• Large amount of monosaccharides link together.

• ex: starch and glycogen.

Lipids

-forms basis of some hormones.

-provides insulation

-stores energy

-fat, waxes, and hydrophobic substances.

-non polar.

Fats

long term energy storage

Glycogen

short term energy storage

-stored in the liver and muscle.

Fiber

-structural support.

-Humans can’t digest several types.

-Helps clean out your digestive tract.

-complex carbohydrate.

Starch

Plant’s storage form carbohydrate.

The major marco molecules that make up the cell are

-Lipids(waxes, oils, etc)
-Nucleic Acids (RNA and DNA)

-Carbs (sugars, starches, glycogen)

-Proteins

Proteins

-servers as transports

• has diverse functions; forming contractile fiber of muscle cells.

• let blood to clot

• form the bulk of connective tissue

• antibodies, enzymes, and cell membranes.

Plasma membrane

-also known cell membrane

-sorrounds the outside of the cell.

-contains intracellular structures.

-cytoplasma, proteins, carbs, lipids.

-pigmented molecules.

-other small molecules.

Intracellular structure

inside the cell.

Organelle function

enable a cell to retain and use genetic intstructions.

-acquires energry

-secretes substances

-dismantle debris.

Nucleus

-most prominent organelle.

-contains DNA

-sorrounded by a layer called Nuclear Enevelope.

-Contains Nucleolous, Nuclear Lamina, and Nuclear Pores

-Other structues: Chromsomes, RNA, and Nucleoplasm

Nuclear lamina

Provides mechanical movement and holds Nuclear Pores down.

Nuclear pores

allow the movement of biochemicals.

Nucleolous

makes ribosomes.

Chromosomes

condensed chromatins.

Chromatin

Composed of DNA and Proteins

ER (Endoplasmic Recticulum)

-Interconnected membranous tubules and sacs.

-Wind from the Nuclear Envelope to plasma membrane.

-Contains Rough ER and Smooth ER

-protein exits Er membrane enclosed sacs called vesicles.

Golgi Appartus

-stack of interconnected flat membrane enclosed facts.

-Processing center forming sugars such as Glycoprotein and GlycoLipid.

-Products release into vesicles that are sent off to the plasma mmebrane,

Exosomes

membrane bound tiny bubbles released by all cells.

-Transport molecules.

-Function;

• Remove immnue debris

• Degrade waste

• Transport immunue system molecules.

• Provides cellular communicationr.

Lyosomes

-membrane bound sacs with digestive enzymes.

-disamantle bacteria, remants, and worn out cells.

-engage in autophagy.

Autophagy

breaking down your own cells.

Endosomes

vesicles that derived from plasma that ferry materials to lyosomes.

Perixosomes

Sacs with outer membrane studded with several types of digestive enzymes.

-breaks down lipids and rare biochemicals.

-synthesizes bile acid

-hydrogen perixode is by product.

-detoxify compounds from oxygen freee radicals.

Mitochondria

-provides energy breaking down chemical bonds that hold nutrient molecules in food.

-Produce ATP.

-consists of two membranes.

Have Mtdna and their own ribosomes.

-Inner membranes has folds called cristae. (Has electrical chemical transport chain and being folded increases surface tension, and holds enzymes catalyze biochemical reactions)

Biological Membrane

-composed of a double layer bilayer molecules called phospholipids.

-2 fatty chains; hydrophobic and hydrophobic.

-phosphate.

-proteins are embedded and carbs on it’s exeternal structure.

-Cholesterol helps with fluidity.

-Sugar molecules help with identification and cell to cell communication

Single Transduction

molecules form pathways that detects signals outside of the cell transports them inwards.

Cellular Adhesion

plasma membrane helps cells attatch to each other.

Cytoskeleton

• a mesh work of protein rods and tubules serve as archetecture.

• consists of

• microtubules

• microfilaments

• microtubules

Cilia

used for movement.

Microfilament

-solid

-made of actin

-muscle contractions and cytokinesis.

-can change length.

Microtubules

-made of tubulin

-change length

-hollow

-go through cell divison

Intermediate filament

• serve as tracks for organelles.

• made of several types of proteins

• can’t change length

G1 phase

-growth phase

-each chromosome is it’s in chromatid form consisting one DNA molecule.

S phase

Replicating phase

-DNA molecules are being replicated, Each chromosome made of two sister chromatids.

G2

cell getting further ready to divide making more molecules such as centersome.

G0

-no DNA replicating or Dividing is happeing.

Interphase of Mitosis

-Chromosomes replicated in S phase prior to mitosis.

-Results in each chromosome consisting of the 2 copies join at the centromere.

-Microtubules form centrioles near the nucleus.

Mitosis and Cytokinesis

Division of DNA and the rest of the cell.

Proferliation

making new cells.

Apotosis

cell death does not inflammation.

Interphase

-Preparing for Division

-Replicates DNA and Subcellular structures.

-G1, S, G2

cell may exit G1 go into G0

Prophase of Mitosis

-chromosome condense.

-centrioles move away from each other.

-Nuclelous breaks down which allow chromosomes to spread out and for microtubules to be attatched.

-Nuclear envelope breaks down.

Metaphase of Mitosis

Chromosomes attatch to their spindle of their centromere.

-Aling of the along cell equator.

-Appear motionless because they’re pulled apart with great force.

Anaphase

Plasma membrane indents in the center.

Centromere divides.

Microtubules shorten which seperate sister chromatids and form two cells.

Telophase of Mitosis

-Microtubules break down.

-Chromatin decondenses reform around the nuclear envelope- consisting of two nuclei and two nucleous in each.

-Ring of actin forms a cleavage which splits it apart makes two daughter cells.

Cytokinesis of Mitosis

-organelle and other macromolecules are distrbuted between two daughter cells.

-microfilament band splits the cells apart making two sperate cells

Telomere

-attatachment site for protein.

-located at the end of chromosomes.

-gets shorter every round of division.

-gets shorter to a point proteins can’t attatch making the molecule unstable.

Telomerase

-prevents telomere from shortening.

-if a cell produces it they get maintain their telomere length making it possible for division.

-stem cells and cancer cells produce it.

chemical signals that control cell outside of the body are

growth factors and hormones.

Cyclin

activates kinases

Kinases

adds a phosphate to the molecule

Cyclin and Kinases

intereact cell activating genes who carry out mitosis

Apoptosis

-begins when a death receptor on the plasma which receives signal a to die.

-killer ezymes capases are activated:

-Destroy enzymes trying to intefere with DNA

-tear apart cytoskeleton.

Destroy cell adhesion

stop phagocytes from engulfing the ramis.

Blebs

Dying form belges called

Necroptosis

unregulated cell death that results in inflammation.

Progenitor

• cell that descent from a daughter cell that can go on several developmental pathways but does capacability of self renewal.

In self of renewal

one of the two daughter cells stay a stem cell.

Toripontent

can form all cells in the body

Pluripontent

can only become certain types of tissues.

Multipontent

more narrow

Uniponent

can only make one type.

Microbome

-micro organisms living on you.

-varies to what you’re exposed to.

Embryotic stem

-created in lab in dish

• used innercell mass of an embryo

Induced pluripontent

somatic cell reprogammed to differiante into different cell types.

Adult stem cell

somatic body cells or tissues.