science extension

epistemology

a branch of philosophy that investigates the origin, nature, methods and limits of human knowledge

induction / inductive reasoning

inference of a generalised conclusion from particular instances

deduction / deductive reasoning

parsimony

adoption of the simplest assumption in the formulation of a theory or in the interpretation of data, especially in accordance with the rule of Occam's razor

Occam’s razor

the proposition that where multiple conclusions are found to be equally possible, the simplest is the true conclusion

falsifiability

the idea that a theory, hypothesis or statement must be testable and shown to be incorrect, if it is to be considered scientific

confirmation bias

the human tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that matches what we already believe while ignoring or dismissing facts that disagree

theory dependence of observation

the philosophical concept that all observations are shaped, filtered, and interpreted through an observer's preexisting concepts, background knowledge, and theoretical frameworks

empiricism

the theory that all knowledge is based on experience derived from the senses

paradigm shift

a significant, fundamental change in how a group or individual thinks about, understands, or does something, replacing an old framework with a completely new one

t-test

a statistical test used to determine if there is a statistically significant difference between the means between groups

f-test

a statistical test used to determine if there is a statistically significant difference between the variances between groups

chi squared test

a statistical hypothesis test used to determine whether your observed categorical data significantly differs from what you would expect by chance

pearson correlation coefficient

a statistical measure that calculates the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two continuous variables

data cleansing

detecting and removing errors and inconsistencies from data in order to improve the quality of data

correlation

interdependence of variable quantities

causation

is the process or relationship where a cause directly brings about an effect

predictive modelling

a statistical and machine learning technique that uses historical data to forecast future events, behaviors, or unknown outcomes

statistical modelling

the use of mathematical equations and probability theory to create a simplified, non-deterministic representation of real-world data and find relationships between variables

descriptive modelling

a data analysis technique that summarizes historical data to explain what has happened and identify patterns without predicting future outcomes

graphical modelling

using visual diagrams, such as graphs with nodes and edges, to represent and simplify complex systems, data, or probabilistic relationships

content analysis

strategies used to analyse the characteristics of a resource

cultural observations

traditional knowledge, based on observations linked to local culture and to the predominant philosophy and rituals of the time

descriptive statistics

statistics that quantitatively describe or summarise features of a collection of information

inferential statistics

statistics that use data from a small, random sample to make predictions, test hypotheses, or draw conclusions about a much larger population

qualitative data

relating to, measuring, or measured by the quality of something

ethical framework

a set of codes that guides behaviour

model

a representation that describes, simplifies, clarifies or provides an explanation of the workings, structure or relationships within an object, system or idea

quantitative data

relating to, measuring, or measured by the quantity of something

secondary-sourced investigation/data

an investigation that involves systematic scientific inquiry by planning a course of action and sourcing data and/or information from other people, including written information, reports, graphs, tables, diagrams and images

thematic analysis

analysis which converts qualitative data into quantitative data

citizen science

scientific research done by everyday people who work together with professional scientists to collect and study data

big data

massive, complex digital datasets that exceed the capacity of traditional software and standard computers to store, manage, and analyse

remote sensing

the scanning of the earth by satellite or high-flying aircraft in order to obtain information about it

type I error

false positive; rejects null hypothesis

type II error

false negative; fails to reject null hypothesis

null hypothesis

a default statistical assumption that there is no real effect, relationship, or difference between variables, and any observed variation is purely due to random chance

open science

a movement that aims to make scientific research, data, code, and publications freely accessible to everyone, regardless of their location or affiliation

observational data

making inferences about a hypothesis by observing a small sample of a larger population

experimental data

collecting data in a carefully controlled experiment, where variables and conditions are controlled

field data

researchers gather data outside laboratory settings

nominal data

variables without applying numbers to them; hair colour or names of people

ordinal data

putting descriptive terms in an order; ordered qualitative data

p-value

a number between 0 and 1 that measures the likelihood of obtaining your observed test results if the null hypothesis is true

belief

an expression of faith or trust in a person, power or other entity; doesn’t necessarily have to be true

infallibilism

to qualify at item of knowledge it must be immune to counterexamples, true and justified with the justification being infallible

indefeasibility

a philosophical concept used to describe an idea, argument, or piece of knowledge that cannot be defeated, overturned, or voided by any new evidence or counterarguments