Introduction to Psychology and Scientific Research Methods

Vocabulary practice flashcards covering core topics in psychology history, theoretical perspectives, research methodology, and statistical analysis.

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes, encompassing both cognitive and physiological aspects.

-developed from philosophy and physiology

Cartesian Dualism

A philosophical perspective that posits the separation of mind and body.

Tabula Rasa

John Locke's concept suggesting that individuals are born as blank slates, shaped by experience.

Structuralism

A school of psychology founded by Wilhelm Wundt that focused on breaking down mental processes into their most basic (CONSCIOUS) components through introspection.

Basic conscious components like sensations, feelings and perceptions

Edward Titchener was a student Wundt, and is the name most directly associated with it

Wundt started it

Titchener developed it

Functionalism (William James)

emphasized the purpose of mental processes in adapting to the environment.

Focused on purpose/function of behaviour

Behaviorism (John B Watson and skinner)

A perspective founded by Watson emphasizing the study of observable behavior rather than internal mental states.

Psychoanalytic Approach (Freud)

A school of psychology founded by Sigmund Freud focusing on the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior, involving the id, ego, and superego.

Humanistic Approach (Maslow and Rogers)

personal growth, subjective experience and the goodness of humans.

-Potential

-Free will (Rogers)

-”third force”

Self-Actualization

The realization of one's potential and personal growth, often regarded as the pinnacle of psychological development.

Person-Centered Therapy

A client-oriented therapy developed by Carl Rogers focusing on creating a supportive environment emphasizing empathy, genuineness, and acceptance.

Cognition

Mental processes such as perception, judgment, and emotions that are essential for acquiring knowledge.

Cognitive Revolution

A historical shift in the decade of the $1950\text{s}$ and $1960\text{s}$ from behaviorism to a focus on internal mental processes, influenced by figures like Piaget and Chomsky.

Biological perspective

A perspective, also known as neuroscience, that examines behavior through the lens of the nervous system, brain activity, genetics, and neurochemistry.

Evolutionary perspective

A perspective positing that psychological traits and behaviors have evolved through natural selection to enhance survival and reproduction.

Sociocultural Approach

A perspective emphasizing the impact of culture, ethnicity, and gender on behavior and mental processes.

Positive Psychology

• focuses on positive emotions, strengths, and well-being rather than pathology.

• led by Martin Seligman and Dacher Keltner

• emerging in the late $20\text{th}$ century

Falsifiability

A core principle of the scientific method requiring that hypotheses must be testable and potentially disprovable.

Empirical Approach

A scientific methodology that emphasizes verification through direct observation and evidence rather than intuition or speculation.

Operational Definitions

Clear, precise definitions of variables that allow for objective measurement and observation in research.

Independent Variable

The variable in an experiment that is controlled or manipulated by the experimenter, hypothesized to cause changes.

Dependent Variable

-The variable in an experiment that is measured by the experimenter,

-expected to change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

• The thing that is being affected, changed, measured

Sample

The specific group of individuals participating in a study, selected from a larger population.

Population

The broader group from which a research sample is drawn, representing the larger context of the study.

Experimental Group

The participants in an experiment who receive the specific treatment or manipulation related to the independent variable.

Control Group

The participants who do not receive the experimental treatment

serving as a comparison.

Extraneous Variables

Other factors that could affect the results

Random Assignment

A experimental technique used to control participant variables

by giving every participant an equal chance of being placed in either the experimental or control group.

Double-Blind Experiment

A study design in where neither the participants nor the experimenters know who receives the active treatment or placebo, minimizing expectation bias.

Placebo Effect

Observed changes in participants' behavior or symptoms resulting from their expectations rather than the actual therapeutic treatment.

Experimenter Bias

A condition occurring when a researcher's expectations influence the outcome of a study or the interpretation of data.

Descriptive Statistics

Statistical measures used to organize, summarize, and present the primary characteristics of a dataset clearly.

Inferential Statistics

Statistical methods that allow researchers to draw conclusions and test whether sample findings can be generalized to a broader population.

Mean

the average

Median

A measure representing the middle score in a distribution that separates the top half from the bottom half.

Mode

A measure of central tendency defined as the most frequently occurring score in a dataset.

Standard Deviation

A measure of variability that quantifies how much scores differ from one another and from the mean of a distribution.

Correlation

A statistical measure of the degree to which two variables are related, expressed as a numeric value between $-1$ and $1$.

Null Hypothesis

A default statement in research positing that there is no difference between experimental groups or no relationship between variables.

Statistical Significance

A benchmark achieved when the probability of the null hypothesis being true is extremely low (typically less than $5\%$).

Reactivity

When a participant changes their behaviour because they know theyre being observed

Psychologist and what theyre associated with

Maslow = Humanistic

Rogers= Humanistic

Watson= Behaviorism

Skinner = Behaviourism

Freud= Pyschoanalysis

Wundt= Structuralism

Titchener= Structuralism

James= Functionalism

Archival method

Using existing records

Naturalistic Observation

Watching and recording behaviour in its natural setting without manipulating anything

“natural setting”

“without interfering”

Case study

Studying one, group or situation in depth (DEEPLY)

Correlational research

Looking at whether two variables are related

William James

-Functionalism

-influenced by Darwins theory of evolution.

-applied ideas like adaptation and survival

-described consciousness as a particle to a stream

Charles Darwin

-Evolution

-Natural selection and adaptation

B.F. Skinner

-Behaviorism

-positive or negative reinforcement

-operant conditioning

John Watson

Behaviourism

Abraham Maslow

Humanistic Psychology

Hierarchy of needs

Wilhelm Wundt

• Founder of psychology/structuralism

• Experimental psychology

• Often linked to structuralism

• Established psychology journal/ lab

Edward Titchener

Developed structuralism

Used systemic introspection

Rene Descartes

Mind body dualism

Plato

Rationalism

Emphasized innate knowledge

Different types of psychology

Clinical = mental disorders/ diagnosis/ treatment/ therapy

Biological= brain, hormones, genetics

Cognitive= thinking, memory, perception

Developmental= changes across the lifespan

Educational/Academic= learning/ school performance

• mostly publish research in journals

Applied psychology= using psychological principles to solve problems (sports)

Social= study behaviour and interactions between people

Counselling= everyday life problems, stress, relationships

confound

an outside factor that creates an alternative explanation for the results

Consciousness vs Unconciousness

Awareness of your thoughts/ feelings

Not aware of your thoughts and feelings

Social behaviour

How we interact with others

Observable behavior

Actions that can be seen

Clinical psychology refers to

Mental disorders/ diagnosis/ treatment

Forensic psychology refers to

Crime/ Law

Cognitive psychology refers to

Thinking, Memory, Perception

Personality psychology

Traits like introversion and extraversion

Application and control

Use research to solve practical problems

Percentile

% who scored the same or lower

Terms for Surveys

Representative sampling= choosing people who accurately represent the larger population

Social desirability bias= people give answers that make them look good, instead of telling the truth

Response set= a person develops a pattern of answering questions

Terms for Experiment

Random assignment= putting participants randomly into different experimental groups, (which group theyre PUT INTO)

Control group= A group that doesn’t receive the experimental treatment

Placebo= people experience change because they believe they received treatment

Experimenter bias= researchers expectations unintentionally influence the results

Inferential statistics

using results from a sample to make conclusions about a larger population

Random Sampling

Everyone in the population has an equal chance of being chosen for the study

Who gets INTO the study

Introspection

Looking inside your own mind, thoughts, feelings and experiences

WEIRD societies

Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic

These populations are overrepresented in psychology research

Variables

Things that can change or be measured

Statistically Significant

The difference is probably real, not just luck or by chance

Type of Statistics

Inferential Statistics= determine whether differences are likely real or chance, whether the results support the hypothesis

Correlational Statistics = measure the relationship between two variables

Descriptive Statistics= describe/summarize the data you already collected

Mathematical Statistics= a broader mathematical field

Survey

ask many people questions to learn a pattern and what is typical

Operational definition

“exactly how something is measured”

a precise explanation of how a concept is measured

let others understand exactly what the researcher means

Scientific Approach

-Precise

-Minimize errors

-Uses systematic methods

-Tests ideas with evidence

Control Variable

The thing that stays the same (ex. room temp)

Experimental method

Researcher changes/ manipulates one variable and observes its effect on another

History of psychology

psychology developed two main parent disciplines

Types of Research Methods

Naturalistic Observation =

Surveys =

Case Studies =

Archival Studies = using existing records

Subject bias

participants personal biases affect how they respond

Demand Characteristics?

participants figure out what the researcher expects and change their behavior accordingly.

Research Methods

ways researchers collect empirical data

=Collect

Statistical procedures

used to analyze data after it is collected.

=Analyze

Behaviourism

study of observable behaviour

discussion

• contains the author's interpretation and evaluation of the data

Addictive disorder

associated with compulsion, risk taking and reward seeking

Anecdotal evidence

a personal story or individual example used as evidence

Carl rogers

founder of free will

humanistic approach

Donald Hebb

Pioneer for neuroscience

Ivan Pavlov

demonstrating that an association between a neutral stimulus and an automatic behaviour

Experimental Methods

Involve manipulation of variables to establish cause-and-effect relationships

Limitation: Can’t experiment everything because it would be unethical or impractical

Within subjects design

Same people measured more than once

Between subjects design

different groups of people measured

GRE sections

Verbal

Quantitative

Analytical