CHP 8.1

Self-concept

How children understand and describe themselves. In middle childhood, self-descriptions shift from physical traits and abilities toward psychological traits, personality, and social characteristics.

Changes in self-concept from early to middle childhood

Early childhood: "I have brown hair and run fast." Middle childhood: "I'm kind but shy." Children increasingly use social comparison and perspective-taking to understand themselves and others.

Self-esteem

A person's overall evaluation of their own worth. Positive parent-child relationships and secure attachment support self-esteem; social comparisons, culture, and environment also influence it.

Self-concept vs. self-esteem

Self-concept = how I describe or understand myself. Self-esteem = how positively or negatively I evaluate myself.

Achievement motivation

Willingness to persist through challenging tasks and achieve high standards. Influenced by how children explain success/failure and whether they believe abilities can improve.

Internal vs. external attributions

Internal = attributing outcomes to personal factors such as ability or study techniques. External = attributing outcomes to outside factors such as luck.

Fixed vs. growth mindset

Fixed mindset = believing abilities are largely unchangeable. Growth mindset = believing abilities can develop through practice, effort, and effective strategies.

Moral development

Development of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors regarding right and wrong, fairness, rules, and interactions with others. Moral feelings include empathy, sympathy, shame, and guilt.

Piaget's heteronomous morality

Around age 6: children view rules and justice as fixed and unchangeable, established by authority figures. Example: "Breaking a rule is always wrong."

Piaget's autonomous morality

Typically develops around age 10+: children understand that people create rules, rules can change, and intentions and circumstances matter when judging behavior.

Piaget's moral development during middle childhood

Ages 7–10 are a transition between heteronomous and autonomous morality. Children gradually move from viewing rules as absolute toward recognizing flexibility and human intentions.

Kohlberg's preconventional reasoning

Morality based on personal consequences, punishment, and rewards. Most common in younger children. Example: "I won't steal because I could get punished."

Kohlberg's conventional reasoning

Morality based on social approval, rules, laws, and maintaining social order. Common from later childhood/adolescence into adulthood. Example: "Stealing is wrong because it breaks the law."

Kohlberg's postconventional reasoning

Morality guided by universal ethical principles, justice, and individual rights, even when they conflict with laws. May develop in adolescence/adulthood; not everyone reaches it.

Kohlberg's Heinz dilemma

A man considers stealing an unaffordable drug to save his dying wife. Kohlberg evaluates WHY someone thinks stealing is right or wrong, not simply whether they approve of stealing.

Criticisms and influences on Kohlberg's theory

Moral reasoning develops through cognitive growth, peer interaction, perspective-taking, and moral conflicts. Criticisms: too much emphasis on reasoning over behavior and possible cultural bias.

Three functions of friendship

Companionship = spending time together; stimulation = excitement and shared activities; affection = warmth, caring, and emotional support.

Changes in peer relationships during middle childhood

Reciprocity and mutual support become more important, peer groups grow, interactions become less adult-supervised, and children often prefer same-sex peer groups.

Peer acceptance vs. peer rejection

Acceptance = being valued and liked as a social partner. Rejection = being disliked or excluded. Poor communication, emotional regulation, and social-processing skills can increase rejection risk.

Bullying: definition and trends

Aggressive verbal or physical behavior directed toward someone with less power. Slides note boys and younger middle-school students are more affected; 70–80% of bullies and victims are in the same classroom.

Consequences of bullying

Bullying can contribute to depression, suicidal ideation, emotional distress, social difficulties, and problems with school adjustment.

Changes in parent-child relationships

Parents spend less time directly with children as independence increases. They continue monitoring behavior, managing opportunities, supporting academics, and using less physical punishment as children age.

Sibling relationships and only children

Siblings provide companionship and support with academic, family, and peer challenges. Only children often have close parent relationships and generally comparable friendships and adjustment to children with siblings.

Parental incarceration: prevalence and disparities

Slides estimate 1 in 14 U.S. children experience a resident parent's incarceration by age 14. Children of color and low-income children are disproportionately affected; outcomes depend on family and socioeconomic context.

Effects of parental incarceration and community violence

Parental incarceration may contribute to anxiety, health vulnerabilities, and behavioral difficulties. Community violence may produce PTSD symptoms, fear, sleep problems, academic difficulties, and aggression.

Three types of child maltreatment

Physical abuse = intentional physical harm; neglect = failure to provide necessary care or safety; sexual abuse = involving a child in sexual activity. Consequences may affect physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development.

Resilience

The ability to adapt positively despite adversity or stressful circumstances. Protective factors help children cope and maintain healthy development.

Three categories of resilience factors

Individual: coping skills, emotional regulation, positive outlook. Family: supportive caregivers, stable home, positive parenting. School/community: supportive teachers, mentors, safe environments, and accessible resources.