Introduction to Psychology and Empirical Foundations

Vocabulary practice flashcards generated from the Introduction to Psychology lecture notes covering empirical foundations, research methods, developmental theories, genetics, neuroscience, and sensation/perception.

Psychology

The scientific study of the mind and behavior, relying on empirical evidence rather than pure logic and reasoning.

Cognition

The way we think.

Empiricism

A philosophical approach based on observable evidence and measurable data.

Wilhelm Wundt

The psychologist who established the first official experimental psychology laboratory in 1879, formalizing psychology as a distinct science.

Just Noticeable Difference (JND)

The first empirical measurement of sensory perception, defined as the point at which there is a noticeable difference in what we can perceive.

Inductive Reasoning

A bottom-up scientific reasoning approach that moves from specific observations to a broader theory.

Deductive Reasoning

A top-down scientific reasoning approach that starts with a collection of statements or a theory about how the world works to make specific predictions or hypotheses.

Case Study

An observational research method focused on an individual or a small group.

Naturalistic Observation

An observational research method involving watching subjects in a natural setting without manipulating the environment.

Structured Observation

An observational research method in which the observer actively creates the environment.

Survey

A research tool consisting of a set of questions for individuals to answer, allowing them to self-report their own behaviors and feelings.

True Experiment

A research design that demonstrates cause-and-effect relations through isolation and manipulation of variables.

External Validity

Also known as generalizability, it refers to the extent to which research results apply across broader populations and settings.

Internal Validity

The level of confidence that a specific outcome or change was caused directly by the experimental variable.

Developmental Psychology

The scientific study of change, growth, and development across the lifespan.

Normative Age-Graded Influence

Developmental changes that happen to almost everyone at a particular age or stage.

Normative History-Graded Influence

Developmental events or influences that are normal for a specific cohort or generation (such as September 11).

Non-Normative Influence

Unique, unpredicted individual experiences that occur outside the expected developmental timeline, such as losing a parent at an early age.

Plasticity

The quality of being easily shaped, molded, or permanently altered without breaking.

Id

The unconscious part of the mind present from birth that operates on the pleasure principle, seeking instant gratification for basic urges and desires.

Ego

The mediator of the mind operating on the reality principle, balancing the urges of the id, real-world constraints, and superego limits.

Superego

The moral compass or conscience formed through parental and societal influences, representing internalized rules and ideals.

Freud's Structural Model of Personality

Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic model dividing personality into three interacting components: the Id, the Ego, and the Superego.

Trust vs. Mistrust

Erikson's first psychosocial stage (birth to 1 year) where infants learn to trust or mistrust that basic needs like nourishment and affection will be met.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Erikson's psychosocial stage (1 year to toddler years) centered on developing a sense of independence in many tasks.

Identity vs. Confusion

Erikson's psychosocial stage (ages 12 to 18) where adolescents experiment with and develop identity and roles.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Erikson's psychosocial stage (ages 19 to 29) focused on establishing intimacy and meaningful relationships with others.

Sensorimotor Stage

Piaget's stage of cognitive development in which the world is experienced primarily through senses and actions.

Teratogen

An introduced environmental element or substance that causes harm during prenatal development.

Schema

A particular way or pattern of thinking used to organize incoming information.

Assimilation

The process of fitting new information into pre-existing schemas.

Accommodation

The process of modifying existing schemas to fit new incoming information.

Temperament

An individual's innate personality and characteristic way of responding to their environment.

Authoritative Parenting

A parenting style characterized by reasonable, consistent rules combined with warmth and affection.

Authoritarian Parenting

A strict parenting style emphasizing discipline and authority with minimal warmth or explanation of rules.

Harlow's Attachment Experiment

A famous psychological experiment demonstrating that infant attachment is based on physical comfort rather than nourishment.

Secure Base

The concept defined by Bowlby and Ainsworth where a responsive caregiver provides a safe foundation from which an infant can explore.

Genotype

The underlying genetic structure of an individual.

Phenotype

The observable physical and behavioral characteristics of an individual.

Allele

A specific form or variant of a gene.

Homozygous

Having two identical forms or alleles of a given gene.

Heterozygous

Having two different forms or alleles of a given gene.

Dominant Allele

An allele that typically expresses its trait even when paired with a different allele.

Recessive Allele

An allele that does not express its trait unless an individual is homozygous for it.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The primary division of the nervous system made up of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The network of communication cells and nerves outside of the Central Nervous System.

Glial Cell

Support structures and cells in the brain.

Hebb's Law

The neuroscientific principle stating that "neurons that fire together, wire together."

Sensation

The detection of physical or external stimuli by sensory organs.

Transduction

The conversion or translation of physical sensory stimuli into electrical nerve signals.

Perception

The way sensory information is processed, organized, interpreted, and consciously experienced.

Bottom-Up Processing

Sensory processing driven directly by incoming sensory information from a stimulus in the environment.

Top-Down Processing

Sensory processing guided by prior experience, expectations, and mental representations.