Psych 202: Exam 1 Study Guide - Methods, Anatomy, Cells, and Signaling

Vocabulary practice flashcards defining core concepts in biopsychology research methods, neuroanatomy, glial physiology, membrane electrophysiology, and synaptic transmission from the Exam 1 Study Guide.

Biopsychology

The scientific discipline studying the biological and neural bases of behavior, cognition, and the mind–brain relationship.

Somatic Intervention

A research approach in which an experimenter directly alters a bodily or brain structure or function to observe what behavioral changes result.

Behavioral Intervention

A research approach in which an experimenter manipulates a subject's behavior or environmental experience to observe resulting changes in brain structure or function.

Sham Stimulation

A control or comparison procedure designed to mimic the sensory experience (such as sound and scalp sensation) of an active stimulation without delivering the active experimental manipulation.

Golgi Stain

A histological staining technique that completely labels only a small subset of individual neurons, revealing their full branching form and detailed cellular structure.

Nissl Stain

A histological staining method that labels RNA within cell bodies, useful for revealing the density, arrangement, and distribution of neurons in tissue.

In Situ Hybridization

A molecular technique used to locate specific messenger RNA ($\text{mRNA}$) sequences within neurons to provide direct evidence of gene expression.

Immunohistochemistry

A lab method that uses labeled antibodies targeted against specific antigens to visualize the location and distribution of proteins in tissue samples.

Event-Related Potential (ERP)

An averaged scalp EEG recording time-locked to a specific sensory, cognitive, or motor event, providing high temporal resolution to determine when a brain response begins.

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

A noninvasive technique that uses focused magnetic fields to briefly alter neural activity in a superficial cortical region to provide causal evidence of its contribution to behavior.

Corpus Callosum

The prominent fiber tract bridging the left and right cerebral hemispheres that carries neural information between them.

Brainstem

The stalk-like region at the base of the brain comprising the midbrain, pons, and medulla.

Thalamus

A large dorsal forebrain structure positioned superior to the hypothalamus that routes and processes information within cortical circuits, including sensory pathways.

Hypothalamus

A ventral structure located beneath the thalamus that regulates internal bodily conditions, controls autonomic responses, and coordinates hormone release via the pituitary gland.

Choroid Plexus

A specialized vascular tissue situated within the brain ventricles that produces cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

Ventricular Pathway

The route taken by cerebrospinal fluid: passing from the lateral ventricles through the interventricular foramina into the third ventricle, down the cerebral aqueduct into the fourth ventricle, and exiting into the subarachnoid space and central canal.

Oligodendrocyte

A type of glial cell in the central nervous system (CNS) that wraps and provides myelin sheaths for segments of multiple axons.

Schwann Cell

A glial cell in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that forms a myelin sheath around a single segment of one axon.

Astrocyte

A star-shaped glial cell in the central nervous system that provides structural support, helps form the blood–brain barrier, and removes neurotransmitters from around synapses.

Microglia

Small immune-like glial cells in the central nervous system that migrate toward damaged tissue to clear away cellular debris.

Axonal Transport

The active cellular mechanism that carries proteins, vesicles, and materials between the soma and distant axon terminals, as well as returning recycled materials to the cell body.

Absolute Refractory Period

The initial phase following an action potential spike during which voltage-gated sodium ($Na^+$) channels remain inactivated, preventing any new action potential from occurring regardless of stimulus strength.

Relative Refractory Period

The phase following an action potential during which voltage-gated sodium ($Na^+$) channels recover from inactivation, but lingering outward potassium ($K^+$) conductance and hyperpolarization require a stronger depolarizing input to reach threshold.

Spatial Summation

The integration of postsynaptic potentials that arrive simultaneously at different physical locations across the dendrites and soma of a neuron.

Temporal Summation

The summation of postsynaptic potentials that arrive in close succession over time at the same synapse before previous responses have completely faded.

Graded Potential

Graded potentials vary in size, spread passively with distance, and can summate

Ionotropic Receptors vs. Metabotropic Receptors

Ionotropic receptors directly open an intrinsic ion channel upon neurotransmitter binding for fast electrical changes; metabotropic receptors activate intracellular signaling cascades and G proteins for slower, longer-lasting cellular effects.

Transmitter Reuptake vs. Enzymatic Breakdown

Two mechanisms for clearing transmitter from the cleft: reuptake transports intact transmitter molecules back into the presynaptic terminal or glia, whereas enzymatic breakdown chemically inactivates transmitters using specific enzymes.

Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels

Ion channels located at the presynaptic terminal that open when depolarized by an arriving action potential, allowing $Ca^{2+}$ entry that triggers synaptic vesicle fusion and neurotransmitter release.

Precentral Gyrus vs. Postcentral Gyrus

The precentral gyrus is located anterior to the central sulcus and contains the primary motor cortex (mediating contralateral motor output); the postcentral gyrus is posterior to the central sulcus and contains the primary somatosensory cortex.

Biopsychology / Behavioral neuroscience

The scientific study of the biological and neural bases of behavior and mental processes.

Somatic intervention

An experimental research design in which a physical or biological structure or function is manipulated as the independent variable to observe effects on behavior.

Behavioral intervention

An experimental research design in which behavior or environmental experience is manipulated as the independent variable to observe changes in bodily structure or physiology.

Sham stimulation

A comparison control condition that closely mimics the sensory experiences (such as sound and scalp sensation) of an active stimulation procedure without delivering the active biological intervention.

Golgi stain

A histological staining technique that labels only a small subset of neurons in tissue samples, completely outlining their branching shapes, dendrites, and soma.

Nissl stain

A histological stain that labels cell bodies to reveal the distribution and density of neurons across brain regions.

In situ hybridization

A molecular method that uses labeled complementary probes to detect specific messenger RNA ($\text{mRNA}$) sequences in neurons, providing evidence of gene expression.

Immunohistochemistry

A histological technique that uses labeled antibodies to detect and visualize specific proteins within neural tissue samples.

Anterograde tracing

An anatomical tracing method where tracer molecules move forward from the neuronal cell body along the axon toward its terminals.

Retrograde tracing

An anatomical tracing method where tracer molecules are taken up at axon terminals and transported backward toward the cell body to reveal input origins.

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

A noninvasive technique that uses magnetic fields to alter neural activity in a localized, superficial cortical region to provide causal evidence about its contribution to behavior.

Afferent

Carrying sensory information or nerve impulses toward the central nervous system ($\text{CNS}$).

Efferent

Carrying motor commands or nerve impulses away from the central nervous system ($\text{CNS}$) toward muscles and effectors.

Corpus callosum

The major white matter commissural tract connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres to carry information between them.

Thalamus

A forebrain (diencephalon) structure positioned dorsal to the hypothalamus that routes and processes information within cortical circuits, including sensory pathways.

Hypothalamus

A diencephalic structure located ventral to the thalamus that regulates internal conditions, directs autonomic functions, and controls hormonal release via the pituitary gland.

Precentral gyrus

The cortical gyrus located immediately anterior to the central sulcus that houses primary motor cortex and primarily exerts contralateral motor control.

Postcentral gyrus

The cortical gyrus located immediately posterior to the central sulcus that houses primary somatosensory cortex.

Choroid plexus

The specialized vascular tissue inside brain ventricles that produces cerebrospinal fluid ($\text{CSF}$).

Cerebral aqueduct

A narrow channel located in the midbrain through which cerebrospinal fluid flows from the third ventricle to the fourth ventricle.

Neuron doctrine

the nervous system is made of distinct, individual cells (neurons) separated by small functional gaps rather than a continuous, fused network.

Oligodendrocyte

A central nervous system ($\text{CNS}$) glial cell type capable of forming myelin sheaths around segments of multiple different axons.

Schwann cell

A peripheral nervous system ($\text{PNS}$) glial cell where each individual cell wraps around a single axon segment to form its myelin sheath.

Astrocyte

A star-shaped central nervous system ($\text{CNS}$) glial cell involved in regulating the chemical environment and clearing neurotransmitters near synapses.

Microglia

Small immune-like glial cells in the $\text{CNS}$ that migrate toward damaged neural tissue to engulf and clear cellular debris.

NG2 cells

Oligodendrocyte precursor cells in the nervous system that can divide and differentiate into new myelinating oligodendrocytes.

Axonal transport

The bidirectional cellular transport system that carries proteins, vesicles, and materials along an axon between the soma and terminal endings.

Sodium-potassium pump

A membrane transport protein that uses metabolic energy to continuously maintain ionic concentration gradients by pumping $Na^+$ outward and $K^+$ inward.

Resting membrane potential

The baseline electrical potential difference across the neuronal cell membrane at rest, resulting in a negative interior relative to the extracellular fluid.

Graded potential

A passive local change in membrane potential whose amplitude varies with stimulus size, spreads passively, diminishes with distance, and can summate with other potentials.

Action potential

An all-or-none, self-regenerating electrical reversal along an axon triggered when membrane depolarization passes threshold.

Threshold

The critical membrane potential value at the trigger region that triggers the opening of voltage-gated sodium channels to initiate an action potential.

Absolute refractory period

The period during an action potential when voltage-gated sodium channels are inactivated, making it impossible to elicit another action potential.

Relative refractory period

The phase following an action potential where a stronger-than-normal depolarizing stimulus is required to fire another spike due to lingering outward $K^+$ conductance and recovering sodium channels.

Spatial summation

The combination of multiple graded postsynaptic potentials arriving simultaneously at different spatial locations across the neuron's dendrites and soma.

Temporal summation

The combination of graded postsynaptic potentials arriving in close succession over time at the same synaptic input location.

Saltatory conduction

The rapid and efficient mode of action potential propagation along a myelinated axon where local current jumps from one node of Ranvier to the next.

Voltage-gated calcium channel

Channels at the axon terminal that open in response to action-potential depolarization, allowing $Ca^{2+}$ entry that triggers synaptic vesicle fusion and neurotransmitter release.

Ionotropic receptor

A ligand-gated postsynaptic receptor that contains an intrinsic ion channel, altering postsynaptic membrane potential directly and rapidly upon neurotransmitter binding.

Metabotropic receptor

A postsynaptic receptor that alters cellular activity via intracellular second-messenger signaling pathways rather than by opening an intrinsic channel directly.

Reuptake

The clearance mechanism in which released neurotransmitter molecules are transported back into the presynaptic terminal or surrounding glial cells by membrane transporter proteins.

Enzymatic breakdown

The deactivation process where specific enzymes in the synaptic cleft degrade released neurotransmitters into inactive metabolic products.

posterior

towards back

anterior

towards the front

superior (dorsal)

towards the top of the brain

inferior (ventral_

towards the bottom of the brain

medial

towards the center line (splitting hemispheres)

lateral

towards the edges

action potential

all-or-none, actively regenerated via voltage-gated channels, and maintain uniform amplitude along the axon.

Forebrain

The anterior developmental division of the brain consisting of the telencephalon and diencephalon, responsible for higher cognitive processing, sensory routing, and autonomic integration.

Midbrain

The intermediate division of the brainstem that contains the superior and inferior colliculi as well as the substantia nigra, coordinating visual reflexes and auditory localization.

Hindbrain

The posterior developmental subdivision of the brain comprising the cerebellum, pons, and medulla oblongata, which governs vital autonomic functions and motor coordination.

Telencephalon

The rostral subdivision of the forebrain that develops into the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic structures.

Diencephalon

The posterior forebrain division positioned beneath the cerebral hemispheres that gives rise to the thalamus and hypothalamus.

Frontal Lobe

The anterior cortical division positioned rostral to the central sulcus, responsible for voluntary motor planning, decision-making, working memory, and expressive language.

Parietal Lobe

The cortical division located caudal to the central sulcus and superior to the lateral sulcus, specialized for somatosensory perception and spatial attention.

Temporal Lobe

The ventrolateral cortical region situated inferior to the lateral sulcus, mediating auditory processing, language comprehension, and long-term memory formation.

Occipital Lobe

The caudalmost cortical division of the cerebral hemispheres, dedicated almost exclusively to visual reception and processing.

Cingulate Cortex

A strip of limbic cortex arching over the corpus callosum along the medial wall of each hemisphere, involved in emotional regulation, conflict monitoring, and executive control.

Insula

An invaginated cortical region buried within the lateral sulcus, playing crucial roles in taste perception, autonomic regulation, and interoceptive awareness.

Basal Ganglia

A prominent group of subcortical forebrain nuclei—including the caudate, putamen, and globus pallidus—that coordinate voluntary movement initiation and procedural learning.

Caudate Nucleus

An elongated, C-shaped subcortical nucleus bordering the lateral ventricles that joins the putamen to form the striatum, contributing to motor control and goal-directed behavior.

Putamen

A large, lateral subcortical nucleus lying lateral to the globus pallidus that pairs with the caudate to form the striatum, regulating motor skills and reinforcement learning.

Globus Pallidus

A pale subcortical nucleus positioned medial to the putamen that serves as a primary inhibitory output zone sending GABAergic projections toward the thalamus.

Hippocampus

A curved, seahorse-shaped structure embedded within the medial temporal lobe that is essential for spatial navigation and the consolidation of declarative memories.

Amygdala

An almond-shaped nucleus situated in the anterior medial temporal lobe that regulates emotional appraisal, fear conditioning, and threat detection.

Pituitary Gland

A small master endocrine organ protruding beneath the hypothalamus that releases hormones regulating growth, blood pressure, reproduction, and stress under hypothalamic control.

Superior Colliculi

Paired rostral swellings on the dorsal midbrain tectum that integrate sensory information to direct visual orientation reflexes and saccadic eye movements.

Inferior Colliculi

Paired caudal swellings on the dorsal midbrain tectum that serve as major subcortical processing hubs in the ascending auditory pathway.

Substantia Nigra

A darkly pigmented midbrain nucleus containing dopaminergic neurons that project to the striatum to facilitate movement initiation.