Comparative Politics - Key Terms

State

organization that maintains a monopoly of force over a given territory OR a set of political institutions to generate & execute policy regarding freedom & equality (requires sovereignty)

Regime

fundamental rules/norms of politics, embodying long-term goals of individual freedom & collective equality, where power should reside, & the use of that power

Democratic Regime

favors public participation & certain individual rights/liberties

Nondemocratic Regime

limits public participation & favors those in power

Government

the leadership or elite in charge of running a state

Country

combination of the state, government, regime, and people who live within a political system

Concensus

Individuals brought together for protection, choose a leader (democratic)

Coercion

individuals are brought together by a ruler (authoritarian)

State Scope

what the government does

State Strength/Capacity

how well the government does things/effectiveness of state scope

Phantom States

states that lack international recognition (ex: Palestine, Taiwan)

Failed States

states that are externally recognized but lack internal recognition (collapsed) (ex: Afghanistan)

Neo-Patrimonialism

• non-autonomous bureaucracy (doesn’t follow pre-determined rules, NOT merit based, clientalism)

• rulers use spoils of office to maintain power

Bureaucratic Rational Authority

a government's power and legitimacy come from established legal rules, formal laws, and official procedures, rather than from custom or the personal charisma of a leader

Organized Crime

illegal trafficking of goods & services, often across borders, & efforts to breach security protocols

Cartels

combine military-like power, territorial control, economic power, & political influence to co-opt & infiltrate states

Co-option

criminal groups corrupt/intimidate police, judges, prosecutors, etc., making the government’s institutions less capable of retaliation

Ethnicity

• sense of belonging to a group based on shared characteristics

• fluid and socially constructed

Nationality

• identification with a nation

• can unite people across ethnicities

Political Attitudes

individual beliefs about governmental/political issues

Political Ideology

broader, organized beliefs about the structure of society/the government

Liberalism

emphasizes individual liberties, rule of law, & representation

Social Democracy

combines democracy, capitalism, & government-improving welfare

Fundamentalism

emphasizes returning to/strictly following perceived fundamental religious principles

Patriotism

benign affection for one’s homeland

Nationalism

an individual’s primary loyalty is with their nation-state

Ethnic Nationalism

ancestry & language determine national identity

Civic Nationalism

all citizens count as members of the nation, regardless of background

Liberal Nationalism

national identity based on self-determination

Irredentism

territorial claims made by a state/national group to lands that lie within another state

Electoral Democracy

free fair elections, suffrage, multiple parties

Liberal Democracy

rule of law, checks on executive power

Electoral Autocracy

elections w/o party competition, elections are not free/fair

Closed Autocracy

executives are not elected

Democratization (steps)

• initiation - first transition to democracy (ex: collapse of old regime)

• consolidation - multiple free/fair elections, change in who’s in power

• deepening - cultural commitment to democracy

Hybrid Regime

democratic institutions (especially elections) exist & are meaningful, but incumbents systematically abuse power, making competition unfair

Personalistic Rule

Autocracy with a monarchy/hereditary/strongman, weak institutions, and neo-patrimonialism

Military Rule

Autocracy ruled by a small group with force, modern crony capitalism, & state-owned enterprises

One-Party Rule

Autocracy with party organization, highly ideological rule, or a clientelist party

Theocracy

Autocracy ruled by religious authority, strongly ideological (ex: Iran)

Competitive Authoritarianism

has the formal elements of democracy (elections), violates liberal institutions (courts/media), impairs electoral competition

Antisystem Forces

groups challenging existing democratic institutions/norms

“Flooding”

overwhelming information spaces to distract from/drown out opponents

Plurality (First-Past-the-Post)

candidate with the most votes wins, even without a majority —> fewer parties, but a president may win with a minority of voters

Majority Runoff/2-Round Runoff

• If no candidate gets 50% of the votes, the top two compete in a 2nd round

• more parties can compete initially, but winner MUST gain majority support

• forces candidates to moderate to appeal to a wider base

• legitimizes presidents more than standard elections

Ranked Choice/Instant Runoff

voters rank candidates, lowest candidate is eliminated & votes redistributed until someone reaches 50%

Caudillismo

politics dominated by powerful personalistic leaders rather than strong parties/institutions

Federalism

• constitutionally protected powers at regional, local levels (diffuses power)

• expands representation

Presidentialism

• separation of powers (executive, legislative) (separate elections)

• fixed electoral terms (ex: every 2 years in the US) —> stability

• popularly-elected president (direct)

• head of state = head of government

• exercise of power is diffused by checks & balances —> slower policy enactment

Parliamentarism

• fuses executive & legislative branches ( executive = Prime Minister FROM executive branch)

• government is powerful & efficient (no checks & balances, parliament votes)

• no fixed electoral terms

• head of government is not always head of state (ex: Britain PM versus King)

Semi-Presidentialism

• popularly elected fixed-term president

• parliament & PM

• ex: France, Russian federation

Single Member District System

• 1 member/district

• winner takes the entire seat

• add up all seats in legislative branch —> manufacture majority

• produces a 1-party government with an underrepresented public

Proportional Representative System

• multiple members per district

• voters vote for a party list

• creates multiparty systems & coalition governments

• produces wider representation that can help mend ethnic divides

Democratic Backsliding

gradual weakening of democratic institutions/parties by elected leaders

Polarization (Effects)

• stronger partisan loyalty

• less willingness to punish undemocratic behavior

• greater democratic backsliding

Coup

sudden overthrow, often by military

Horizontal Accountability

courts, legislatures, agencies

Vertical Accountability

voters & the press

Social Expidentures

state provision of public benefits such as education, healthcare, & transportation (often paid for with tax revenue)

Central Bank

state institution that controls how much money is flowing through the economy & cost of borrowing money by changing the National Interest Rate & influencing banks

Inflation

as demand outstrips supply, price of goods increases & currency loses its value

Hyperinflation

Inflation greater than 50% for over 2 consecutive months

Deflation

as supply outstrips demand, prices fall & value of goods/services decreases

Communism

eliminates individual freedom to achieve equality, private property is fully nationalized, labor is allocated by the state

Mercantilism

national economic power takes priority, domestic economy exists to serve the needs of the state

Parastatal

industry partially owned by the state

Liberal Meritocratic Capitalism (US)

• combines private ownership, markets, democracy, rule of law, & merit

• gives citizens a voice

• encourages innovation & mobility

• can create growing inequality as wealth reproduces itself among elites

Political Capitalism (China)

• combines an autonomous state, technocratic bureaucracy (legitimacy comes from delivering economic growth), privately owned production, & wage laborers

• state can make decisions rapidly & pursue fast economic growth

• state must continuously deliver growth to maintain legitimacy

• corruption is common

Inclusive Institutions

• broad participation in the economy

• secure property rights

• encourage education, innovation, & investment

• political power is more widely distributed

Extractive Institutions

• benefits are concentrated among elites

• property rights are insecure/arbitrary

• discourage investment/innovation

• political power is concentrated

Critical Juncture

major historical event that disrupts the existing political/economic system & creates opportunities for institutional change

Virtuous Circle

inclusive political institutions —> inclusive economic institutions —> prosperity —> broader political participation —> institutions become stronger

Vicious Circle

extractive political institutions —> extractive economic institutions —> elites gain wealth/power —> elites preserve extractive powers —> continued poverty/inequality

Human Development Index (HDI)

• measure of a countries overall level of development created by the UN

• based on factors like life expectancy, education, GDP, etc.

• 0-1 (least to most developed)

Import Substitution Industrialization

• promotes domestic production with trade barriers, SOEs

• overvalues currency

• rapid initial growth BUT over time inefficiencies emerge, growth slows, & debt emerges

Export Led Growth

• state promotes growth by investing in industries & focusing on exports

• mostly “developmental states” —> Japan, South Korea, Taiwan

• promotes rapid growth

Bretton Woods System

established by the US & its allies, promoted open trade & investment while protecting domestic welfare policies

Embedded Liberalism

international economic openness & government protection of domestic economic stability & citizens