Criminology Exam 3 Study Guide

Comprehensive practice flashcards reviewing major criminological theories, labeling theory, feminist criminology, developmental/life-course perspectives, and Marxist views of crime and legal control.

How have marginal groups been targeted in the criminalization of marijuana and cocaine/crack cocaine in the U.S.?

Punishment has predominantly targeted lower-class individuals and minorities (e.g., Hispanic and Black individuals are targeted differently for marijuana compared to white individuals). Although powder cocaine and crack cocaine are the same drug, powder cocaine is associated with higher-class white people and carries lighter punishments, whereas crack cocaine is associated with lower-class individuals and carries harsher penalties.

Where do Marxist criminologists locate the primary roots of crime?

In economic conditions.

What is the difference between primary and secondary deviance according to labeling theory?

Primary deviance refers to initial rule-breaking that does not significantly change a person's self-image or social role (e.g., skipping class). Secondary deviance refers to further rule-breaking that results from acquiring a deviant label and adopting that identity (e.g., being labeled a troublemaker and acting accordingly).

What are the two major policy implications of labeling theory?

1. Decriminalization: removing status offenders from the jurisdiction of the juvenile justice system.
2. Radical non-intervention: the belief that it is better to tolerate minor offenses rather than risk formally labeling the offender.

In Marxist theory, what does the term "bourgeoisie" refer to?

Those who own and control the means of production.

What is the core premise of John Braithwaite's theory of reintegrative shaming?

Society can discourage crime by condemning wrongful acts while respecting the individual offender and welcoming them back into society.

How does conflict theory explain the origins of criminal laws?

Criminal laws originate from struggles between social groups with unequal power rather than reflecting shared moral values of right and wrong, highlighting who influences the law, who is criminalized, and who benefits.

Why is labeling theory considered more of an explanation of societal reactions to crime than of the initial causes of crime?

Because it focuses on how society responds to rule-breaking through arrest, punishment, and stigmatization rather than explaining why an individual originally committed an offense. It argues that being labeled a criminal alters a person's self-image and encourages secondary offending.

According to Akers and Sellers, which core issues does feminist theory address in criminology?

1. Do theories of male crime apply to women?
2. Can existing theories explain gender differences in crime?
3. Does the social experience of being a woman produce different criminal outcomes compared to males?

What does the economic marginalization hypothesis propose regarding female criminal offending?

It hypothesizes that financial resources have decreased for many women, causing them to rely on criminal activity rather than men for economic survival.

Which topic is noted as NOT being a key feature of contemporary feminist criminology?

A focus on motherhood and crime.

According to criminological research, during which life stage does criminal activity generally peak?

During adolescence (as illustrated by the age-crime curve).

What are the primary dimensions examined in criminal careers research?

Initiation & continuation, escalation, and desistance & termination of criminal activity.

How is antisocial potential that is influenced primarily by immediate situational factors and criminal opportunities classified?

Short-term AP (antisocial potential), immediate opportunity.

Which concept from Travis Hirschi's social bonding theory overlaps with and can be subsumed under the social learning concept of "definitions"?

Belief.

What is the central focus of developmental and life-course theories (D&LCT)?

Examining how and why criminal behavior begins, continues, changes, and ends across a person's life, taking into account individual development, interpersonal relationships, and life-changing circumstances.

What are the three general ways to examine criminological theories?

1. By themselves
2. Competing with other theories
3. Integrated with other theories

How does Delbert Elliott's integrated model serve as an example of propositional theoretical integration?

It combines elements of strain, bonding, and learning theories by proposing that strain, family problems, and school failure weaken social bonds to conventional society, which in turn increases bonds to delinquent peers and leads to higher rates of delinquency.

What term describes deviance that occurs as an adaptation or reaction to the social stigma attached to a deviant label?

Secondary deviance.

What is Charles Horton Cooley's concept of the "looking-glass self," and how does it relate to labeling theory?

It posits that individuals develop their self-image based on how they believe others perceive and judge them, using others as a social mirror. Labeling theorists use this concept to explain how formal or informal criminal labels become internalized as part of an individual's identity.

What is the difference between informal and formal social control, and how do they relate to law?

Informal social control consists of nonlegal rules and expectations maintained by family, friends, and social groups. Formal social control consists of the criminal justice system and statutes enforced by authorized legal agents. Both are mechanisms of social control, with law functioning as a primary formal component.

How does the Marxist perspective interpret the role of capitalism in the creation and enforcement of criminal law?

Capitalism structures the law to protect private property and preserve the power and wealth of the ruling class. Law enforcement selectively targets disadvantaged and lower-class individuals to preserve existing socioeconomic inequalities, while wealthy and powerful groups evade severe legal penalties.

Which criminological perspective links childhood physical and sexual victimization directly to adult criminal offending among women?

The gendered pathways approach.

According to Terrie Moffitt's developmental taxonomy, how do adolescent-limited (AL) offenders differ from life-course persistent (LCP) offenders?

Life-course persistent (LCP) offenders exhibit antisocial tendencies beginning early in childhood/infancy and continue committing crimes into adulthood, often escalating to serious offenses. Adolescent-limited (AL) offenders begin offending during their teenage years and typically desist as they mature into adulthood.