Sociology: Research Methods and Introductory Concepts

Comprehensive practice flashcards covering sociological research methods, sampling strategies, experimental design, research ethics, and key theoretical perspectives and sociologists.

What two objectives must be met when approaching a topic or study scientifically in sociology?

To describe in detail particular things or events, and to propose and test theories that help us understand those things or events.

How does a detective's objective differ from a sociologist's objective when investigating an event?

A detective aims to identify, locate criminals, and collect evidence to show they have the right person, whereas a sociologist aims to formulate hypotheses, collect data, and develop theories to understand why the event took place and under what circumstances it might recur.

What is an empirical question?

A question that can be answered through observation and analysis of the world as it's known.

What does operationalization mean in sociological research?

The process of breaking down major terms and concepts into an observable form or specific categories for measurement.

What general rule applies to the age of literature used in sociological research?

Any research outside of $7$ years is considered outdated unless it is being used as a historical reference.

Why is Wikipedia not considered a credible source for college-level research?

It is not a peer-reviewed or scholarly source where a panel of experts feedback has verified the credibility of the study.

What is a hypothesis?

A testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables.

What is a variable in sociological research?

Anything that could change or vary, such as age, income, temperament, education level, or temperature.

What is a statement of causality?

A proposition or belief that one variable brings about change or influence in another variable ($A \rightarrow B$ or $A\text{ causes }B$).

What is a statement of association?

A statement that changes in one variable are related to changes in another, but one variable does not necessarily cause the other.

What is the key difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable?

An independent variable is the cause and can stand alone, while a dependent variable is the effect that depends on the independent variable to change.

What is the difference between a research hypothesis and a null hypothesis?

A research hypothesis states that there is a significant influence or relationship between studied variables, whereas a null hypothesis states that there is no relationship or influence between variables.

What is the primary requirement of a research design?

It must provide for the collection of all necessary and sufficient data to test stated hypotheses, rather than attempting to prove a point.

What are the 5 main research methods used by sociologists?

1) Surveys, 2) Participant observation, 3) Naturalistic observations, 4) Experiments, and 5) Secondary Analysis (Historiography).

How do questionnaires differ from interviews in survey research?

Questionnaires solicit information from larger populations quickly with little to no interaction, whereas interviews involve smaller populations face-to-face or in groups to obtain more detailed responses.

What are the 4 questionnaire formats?

1) Pre-coded (multiple choice), 2) Open-ended (short essay/in your own words), 3) Close-ended (fill in the blank), and 4) Likert-type (statement answered across a range of responses).

What are the 4 main types of interview formats?

1) Structured interview, 2) Unstructured interview, 3) Semi-Structured interview, and 4) Focus group.

What is the difference between a structured interview and a semi-structured interview?

A structured interview requires asking a fixed list of questions strictly in order without offering help, while a semi-structured interview allows the researcher to vary, deviate, ask new questions, or probe for clarity.

What is the role of a moderator in focus group research?

To lead group questioning, keep the $6$ to $12$ participants on task, and balance participation between overtalkative and quiet members.

What is the difference between a cross-sectional study and a longitudinal study?

A cross-sectional study takes place only once and cuts across a specific population at a single point in time, while a longitudinal study tracks and interviews/observes the same population over an extended period of time.

What is an Interrupted Time Series Analysis?

A research design where the researcher makes observations about a certain group over equal increments in time to monitor progress.

What is the difference between an overt observer and a covert observer in participant observation?

An overt observer conducts research out in the open where everyone knows research is occurring, while a covert observer works undercover without subjects knowing.

Why did Laude Humphries' Tea Room Trade study violate research ethics?

Because Humphries coerced participants into taking part in the study by using harassment and blackmail threats to reveal their secret behavior to their wives and the public.

What is naturalistic observation (ethnography)?

A field research method where the researcher studies a population's behavior in its natural setting without entering the setting or interacting with participants.

In experimental research, how do the experimental group and control group differ?

The experimental group receives the stimuli being tested, while the control group remains constant and does not receive the stimuli.

What are the three essential components of an experimental research study?

1) Pretest (given to both groups prior to stimuli), 2) Stimuli (the variable tested, given only to experimental group), and 3) Post-test (given to both groups after stimuli to evaluate change).

What is secondary analysis?

A research method where a researcher examines another researcher's data or existing social records to confirm or reject their findings.

What is historiography?

A form of secondary analysis that uses tombstones (grave markers) as a primary data source and works backwards to examine an individual's life and role in society.

What is a sample in research?

A particular subset of a population chosen for a study from which the researcher solicits information.

How does random sampling differ from stratified random sampling?

Random sampling gives every individual in a population an equal chance of selection, whereas stratified random sampling divides the population into equal strata/cells to prevent over- or under-representation of specific groups.

What is a snowball sample?

A referral-based sampling strategy where initial participants who meet study criteria refer additional subjects to accumulate a larger sample.

How is a systematic sample executed?

Names are selected from a master list at a calculated interval based on population total and desired sample size ($\text{Interval} = \frac{\text{Population}}{\text{Desired Sample}}$), starting from a random initial point.

What is a convenience sample?

Selecting a sample based upon the researcher's easy access to the targeted group needed for the study.

What is a purposive sample?

A sampling strategy where the researcher relies on prior knowledge of a population to ensure specific qualities or sub-groups are represented.

What is researcher bias, and how do blind or double-blind investigators prevent it?

Researcher bias occurs when a researcher selects data supporting their hypothesis while ignoring non-supporting data; a blind investigator is unaware of which cases/participants are being tested, while a double-blind investigator is unaware of both the cases and the hypothesis.

What is the difference between validity and reliability?

Validity means the research actually tests what it intended to test regarding the hypothesis, while reliability means the study can be duplicated by others using the same techniques to achieve similar findings.

What is the purpose of an Institutional Review Board (IRB)?

A panel of experts that reviews research proposals involving human subjects to critique ethics and protect participants from psychological, emotional, physical, or legal harm.

How is Sociology defined?

The scientific study of human society and social interaction.

What is the sociological imagination according to C. Wright Mills?

The process of looking at all types of human behavior patterns and discerning unseen connections, allowing one to see the connection between individual experiences and larger social forces.

What are the four components of the scientific method abbreviated as O.E.G.V.?

Observation, Experimentation, Generalization, and Verification.

How does cultural anthropology obtain information about pre-industrialized societies?

Researchers immerse themselves in communities over an extended period of time to gain first-hand information from inside the society.

What is the key functional distinction between a psychologist and a psychiatrist?

Psychiatrists can prescribe medication, whereas psychologists generally cannot.

What does the term 'Herstory' represent in historical studies?

The recognition and inclusion of women's experiences and contributions that were historically overlooked in traditional accounts.

What are the three branches of government studied in political science and their roles?

1) Executive (signers/enforcers like Presidents, Governors, Mayors), 2) Legislative (creators of laws like Congress, Senate, City Council), and 3) Judicial (enforcers/interpreters like Courts, Judges, Law Enforcement).

What was Auguste Comte's major contribution to sociology?

He coined the term Sociology and was a French Enlightenment thinker known for proposing foundational concepts.

How did Charles Darwin's work influence sociology?

His theory of evolution published in On the Origin of Species (1859) introduced ideas of adaptation and 'survival of the fittest' applied to social prospering.

How did Karl Marx conceptualize society in Conflict Theory?

He argued society is driven by class struggle between two groups: the Bourgeoisie (wealthy owners who control production and make rules in their own interest) and the Proletariat (exploited working class).

Who authored the first sociology textbook?

Herbert Spencer.

Why is Emile Durkheim considered the Father of Modern Sociology?

He was the first major sociologist to systematically test theories through empirical research, notably in his 1893 study Suicide.

What are Emile Durkheim's four types of suicide and their causes?

1) Egoistic (too little integration), 2) Altruistic (too much integration), 3) Anomic (too little regulation/normlessness), and 4) Fatalistic (too much regulation/excessive control).

What is anomie?

A condition of normlessness, social disorganization, or moral deregulation breakdown of social norms.

What was Emile Durkheim's theory regarding crime in Normal and the Pathological?

Crime is normal and necessary for society to set boundaries; if crime vanished, society would lower the bar and create new categories of crime to maintain a stock of deviants.

How do Mechanical societies and Organic societies differ in Durkheim's Division of Labor in Society?

Mechanical societies are small, traditional, and guided by a shared collective conscience, whereas Organic societies are large, complex, and rely on specialized roles and divisions of labor.

How did Monroe Work explain post-slavery crime rates among African Americans?

He showed that society created Black Codes and the Convict Lease System to criminalize minor behaviors (such as curfews, loitering, and vagrancy) and lease prison labor back to ex-slave owners.

What methods and topics were studied by Jane Addams and Florence Kelley at Hull House?

They used mapping techniques to study poverty and working conditions among Chicago immigrants, leading to reforms in minimum wage, 8-hour workdays, and child labor laws.

Who was the first African American to earn a PhD from Harvard in Sociology, and what was his major study?

W.E.B. Du Bois, author of The Philadelphia Negro, who studied race relations and the 'color line'.

What is the difference between manifest functions and latent functions according to Robert Merton?

Manifest functions are intended and recognized consequences of social processes, while latent functions are unintended and unrecognized consequences.

What are the core assumptions of the Functionalist perspective?

Society is a system of interdependent structures that work together toward stability, consensus, and cooperation to maintain order.

What is Erving Goffman's concept of Dramaturgy?

A perspective viewing social interaction like a theatrical stage, distinguishing between Front Stage (public, formal, professional self) and Back Stage (private, informal, genuine self).