Exam 1 Infant and Child Development

Goal of Developmental Science

Documenting what development looks like across time (e.g., changes from babbling to talking).

Nature

The biological and genetic inheritance that influences human development.

Nurture

The complex environmental influences, from prenatal conditions to surrounding culture, that shape development.

Developmental Cascade

A chain reaction where a change in one developmental domain triggers spillover effects in other domains over time.

Plasticity

The capacity of the brain and behavior to change in response to environmental inputs and experiences.

Sensitive Period

A window of time during development when the brain is particularly responsive to environmental input.

Darwin's Evolutionary Theory

Focuses on innate, recurring behavioral patterns selected because they serve adaptive, survival-related functions.

Nativism / Core Knowledge Theory

Proposes that humans are born with innate, specialized cognitive modules evolved for survival (Spelke, Chomsky).

Freud's Psychosexual Theory

Theory that development is driven by unconscious drives through five distinct stages managed by the Id, Ego, and Superego.

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

Life-span theory focusing on eight developmental stages where individuals resolve specific identity and social conflicts.

Classical Conditioning

Learning process where a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus to evoke a response (Watson's Little Albert).

Operant Conditioning

Learning process where behavior frequency is modified using positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, or punishment (Skinner).

Social Learning Theory

Theory emphasizing observational learning, modeling, and vicarious reinforcement (Bandura's Bobo Doll study).

Piaget's Constructivism

Theory that children actively construct knowledge about the world through hands-on interaction with their environment.

Schema

A mental structure or framework used to organize and interpret information.

Assimilation

Fitting new experiences or information directly into pre-existing cognitive schemas.

Disequilibrium

The uncomfortable state of cognitive imbalance experienced when new information conflicts with existing schemas.

Accommodation

Modifying existing schemas or creating new ones to fit new environmental experiences.

Vygotsky's Socio-Cultural Theory

Theory that cognitive development occurs through guided social interactions within cultural contexts.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The gap between what a learner can accomplish independently versus what they can achieve with guidance.

Developmental Niche

The cultural framework of development, including physical settings, caregiving customs, and caregiver psychology.

Microsystem

Bronfenbrenner's level comprising direct, immediate contexts the child interacts with (e.g., family, school, peers).

Mesosystem

Bronfenbrenner's level accounting for the interactions and connections between a child's different microsystems.

Exosystem

Bronfenbrenner's level involving indirect environments that affect the child (e.g., parent workplace policies).

Macrosystem

Bronfenbrenner's level encompassing broad cultural values, laws, socioeconomic factors, and societal beliefs.

Chronosystem

Bronfenbrenner's level representing historical time periods and time-based life transitions.

Developmental Systems Theory

Views behavior as self-organizing from dynamic, real-time interactions between body, brain, and environment.

Correlational Design

Research design examining associations between variables without manipulation; cannot establish causation.

Experimental Design

Research design manipulating an independent variable to measure its direct causal effect on a dependent variable.

Independent Variable

The variable manipulated by the researcher in an experiment to test its effect.

Dependent Variable

The outcome variable measured by the researcher to evaluate the effect of the independent variable.

Longitudinal Design

Research design that follows the exact same group of participants over an extended period of time.

Cross-Sectional Design

Research design that compares different age groups of participants at a single point in time.

Cohort-Sequential Design

Research design combining longitudinal and cross-sectional methods by following multiple age cohorts over time.

Microgenetic Design

Research design involving dense, closely spaced observations over a short timeframe to capture change as it occurs.

Convenience Sampling

Sampling technique using easily accessible participants, which often reduces generalizability to broader populations.

Generalizability

The extent to which research findings from a sample can be accurately applied to the broader population.

Gene

A specific segment of DNA that contains the instructions for building proteins.

Allele

One of two or more alternative variations of a specific gene.

Genotype

An individual's underlying genetic makeup or DNA sequence.

Phenotype

The observable physical, physiological, or behavioral characteristics expressed by an individual.

Epigenetics

Functional changes in gene expression caused by environmental factors without altering the underlying DNA sequence.

Meaney LG-ABN Rat Study

Demonstrated that maternal grooming alters stress response genes (GR receptors), proving postnatal care drives epigenetics.

Dutch Hunger Winter

Historical event showing that early gestational malnutrition causes long-term epigenetic metabolic changes in offspring.

Autosomal Dominant Disorder

Genetic disorder requiring only one copy of a mutated dominant gene on a non-sex chromosome (e.g., Huntington's).

Autosomal Recessive Disorder

Genetic disorder requiring two copies of a mutated gene to be expressed (e.g., PKU, Cystic Fibrosis).

X-Linked Recessive Disorder

Genetic disorder carried on the X chromosome that disproportionately affects biological males (e.g., Fragile X).

Passive Gene-Environment Correlation

Occurs when biological parents provide both genes and an environment that aligns with those genetic traits.

Evocative Gene-Environment Correlation

Occurs when an individual's genetically influenced traits elicit specific reactions from others in their environment.

Active Gene-Environment Correlation

Occurs when individuals actively seek out environments that match their genetic inclinations (niche-picking).

Niche-Picking

The tendency for individuals to actively select environments aligned with their genetic predispositions.

Germinal Stage

Prenatal period from conception to 2 weeks involving cell division, blastula creation, and uterine implantation.

Endoderm

The inner germ layer of the embryo that develops into the digestive tract, lungs, and internal glands.

Mesoderm

The middle germ layer of the embryo that develops into muscles, skeleton, circulatory system, and heart.

Ectoderm

The outer germ layer of the embryo that develops into the skin, sensory organs, and nervous system.

Embryonic Stage

Prenatal period from 3 to 8 weeks marked by rapid organogenesis, neurulation, and structural formation.

Neurulation

The critical prenatal process during weeks 3-4 where the neural plate folds to form the primitive neural tube.

Fetal Stage

Prenatal period from week 9 to birth characterized by dramatic growth, brain folding, and system refinement.

Limit of Viability

The earliest age at which a fetus can potentially survive outside the womb (~21-22 weeks with modern care).

Cephalocaudal Pattern

Pattern of developmental growth proceeding from head to toe (head develops before limbs).

Proximodistal Pattern

Pattern of developmental growth proceeding from the center of the body outward (trunk develops before fingers).

DeCasper & Spence Study

Demonstrated fetal hearing memory by showing newborns altered pacifier sucking to hear familiar prenatal stories.

Teratogen

Any external environmental agent (drug, toxin, virus) that can cause damage or birth defects during prenatal development.

Sensitive Period for Teratogens

The timeframe (typically embryonic stage) when developing organs are most vulnerable to structural damage from teratogens.

Stage 1 of Labor

The longest stage of labor involving uterine contractions that dilate and efface the cervix up to 10 cm.

Stage 2 of Labor

The delivery stage of labor involving active maternal pushing, ending with the birth of the baby.

Stage 3 of Labor

The final stage of labor involving the contraction of the uterus to deliver the placenta and fetal membranes.

Dilation

The widening and opening of the cervix during Stage 1 of labor (reaches 10 cm at full dilation).

Effacement

The thinning and shortening of the cervix during Stage 1 of labor.

Transition

The final, most intense phase of Stage 1 labor as the cervix opens completely from 8 to 10 cm.

Epidural Anesthesia

A regional pain-blocking medication injected into the spine during labor that reduces maternal sensation.

Induced Labor

Labor initiated artificially using synthetic oxytocin (Pitocin) or mechanical intervention.

Cesarean Delivery (C-Section)

Surgical birth of an infant through incisions made in the mother's abdomen and uterus.

APGAR Scale

A quick assessment of a newborn's physical condition performed at 1 and 5 minutes after birth (Scores 0-10).

Anoxia

Inadequate oxygen supply during labor or delivery that can lead to neurological damage.

Preterm Infant

An infant born prior to 37 weeks of gestation.

Small-for-Date Infant

An infant whose birth weight is below expected levels given their gestational age (higher risk than preterm alone).

Low Birth Weight (LBW)

An infant born weighing less than 5.5 pounds (2,500 grams).

Very Low Birth Weight (VLBW)

An infant born weighing less than 3.3 pounds (1,500 grams).

Rooting Reflex

Involuntary turning of an infant's head toward a cheek stroke to locate a food source.

Sucking Reflex

Involuntary, rhythmic sucking response triggered when an object is placed in an infant's mouth.

Moro Reflex

Involuntary startle response where an infant arches their back and flings arms outward before pulling them in.

Palmar Grasp Reflex

Involuntary curling of an infant's fingers around an object placed in their palm.

Babinski Reflex

Involuntary fanning and spreading of the toes when the sole of the foot is stroked.

REM Sleep in Infants

Stage of sleep occupying ~50% of newborn sleep, providing essential stimulation for central nervous system growth.

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)

Unexplained death of an infant under 1 year during sleep; risk reduced by placing infants back-to-sleep.

Kangaroo Care

Skin-to-skin contact intervention for preterm/LBW infants that improves oxygenation, body temperature, and weight gain.