Science 10: Chemistry and Thermal Energy Review

Comprehensive flashcards covering thermal energy transfer, specific heat capacity, mole calculations, chemical nomenclature, bonding types, and chemical reaction classifications from the lecture series.

Infrared Radiation

Thermal energy emitted in the form of electromagnetic waves by any object or substance with a temperature above absolute zero ($-273^\circ\text{C}$).

Specific Heat Capacity ($c$)

The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram ($1\,g$) of a substance by one degree Celsius ($1^\circ\text{C}$), measured in units of $J/(g\cdot^\circ\text{C})$.

Thermal Energy Formula ($Q = mc\Delta T$)

The mathematical relationship used to calculate heat transfer, where $Q$ represents heat in Joules ($\text{J}$), $m$ represents mass in grams ($\text{g}$), $c$ represents the specific heat capacity, and $\Delta T$ represents the temperature change in degrees Celsius ($^\circ\text{C}$).

Albedo

A measurement of how reflective a surface is to incoming radiation; water has a low albedo because it reflects very little energy.

Phase Change

A physical transition between states of matter during which adding or removing thermal energy alters intermolecular bonds while the temperature and average kinetic energy of the molecules remain constant.

Atomic Molar Mass

The mass of one mole ($6.02 \times 10^{23}$ atoms) of a specific chemical element, determined from the periodic table and measured in $g/mol$ (such as sulfur having an atomic molar mass of $32.07\,g/mol$).

Molar Mass ($M$)

The mass in grams of one mole of any pure substance, element, compound, or molecule, measured in $g/mol$ (such as pure water having a molar mass of $18.02\,g/mol$).

Mole-Mass Relationship Formula

The mathematical formula $n = \frac{m}{M}$, connecting chemical quantity and mass, where $n$ is the number of moles ($\text{mol}$), $m$ is the substance mass in grams ($\text{g}$), and $M$ is the molar mass in $g/mol$.

Cohesion

The intermolecular attraction between identical molecules, such as water molecules clinging tightly to neighboring water molecules to create high surface tension and droplets.

Adhesion

The molecular force of attraction between water molecules and a different substance or surface, such as the sides of a container.

Density Anomaly of Water

The atypical property of water whereby its solid state (ice) is less dense than its liquid state because hydrogen bonding forces molecules into an expanded crystal lattice with empty space; exceptions to normal contraction upon cooling also include germanium, silicon, and acetic acid.

Polar Molecule (Dipole)

A molecule characterized by an uneven distribution of electrical charge across its structure, allowing its positive pole (such as the hydrogen atoms in $H_2O$) to attract the negative pole (such as the oxygen atom) of an adjacent molecule.

Reactants

The starting substances present before a chemical reaction occurs that undergo bond rearrangement to yield new materials.

Products

The resulting substances generated by the atomic reorganization and bond formations of a chemical reaction.

Conduction

The mode of thermal energy transfer between substances or objects in direct physical contact, typically taking place in solids through molecular collisions from regions of higher energy to lower energy.

Convection

The transfer of thermal energy within fluids (liquids and gases) produced by bulk fluid circulation, wherein warmer, faster-moving molecules rise and cooler, slower-moving molecules descend.

Mole ($\text{mol}$)

The standard scientific unit representing the amount of substance containing the exact number of formula units as there are carbon atoms in a $12\,g$ sample of Carbon-12.

Avogadro's Number ($N_A$)

The fundamental constant $6.02 \times 10^{23}$, representing the total number of atoms, ions, particles, or molecules present in exactly one mole of a substance.

Formation Reaction

A chemical reaction classification in which two or more distinct reactants combine to generate a single new product compound.

Decomposition Reaction

A chemical reaction in which a single compound reactant breaks apart into smaller constituent compounds or individual elements through the application of heat, electricity, or other energy.

Single Replacement Reaction

A chemical reaction in which a pure element reacts with an ionic compound, causing the lone element to replace one of the constituent ions to yield a new ionic compound and a displaced free element.

Double Replacement Reaction

A chemical reaction where two aqueous ionic compounds exchange cation and anion partners according to the pattern $AB + CD \rightarrow AD + CB$, forming two completely different ionic compounds.

Corrosion

An oxidation process characterized by the loss of electrons by a metal in the simultaneous presence of water and oxygen.

Complete Combustion Reaction

A clean-burning reaction between a hydrocarbon fuel and sufficient oxygen ($O_2$) that produces only carbon dioxide ($CO_2$), water vapor ($H_2O$), and energy, leaving little residue.

Incomplete Combustion Reaction

A combustion reaction occurring under conditions of insufficient oxygen ($O_2$), yielding toxic carbon monoxide ($CO$), solid carbon soot, smoke, water vapor ($H_2O$), and energy.

Chemical Change

A transformation in which existing chemical bonds are broken and new bonds are formed, causing substances to undergo reorganization of atoms and alter their intrinsic chemical properties.

Physical Change

A process that modifies physical parameters such as shape, size, or physical state without breaking or forming chemical bonds or altering chemical identity.

Dissociation

The process that occurs when an ionic solid dissolves in water, resulting in the separation of the crystal lattice into individual mobile cations and anions surrounded by solvent molecules.

Solute

The component in a solution that is dissolved by the solvent, which must be more attracted to solvent particles than to itself and sufficiently small to fit within intermolecular spaces.

Diatomic Molecule

A neutral molecular unit composed of two identical non-metal atoms covalently bonded together, consisting of $H_2$, $N_2$, $O_2$, $F_2$, $Cl_2$, $Br_2$, and $I_2$.

Polyatomic Ion

A group of covalently bonded non-metal atoms carrying an overall net positive or negative ionic charge that remains intact and acts as a single charged unit during ionic compound naming.

Binary Acid

An acid composed solely of hydrogen bonded to a single non-metal anion, ending in '-ide' in standard IUPAC naming and named as 'hydro-[root]-ic acid' in common nomenclature.

Oxyacid

An acid composed of hydrogen bonded to a polyatomic anion containing oxygen, named without the 'hydro-' prefix based on the name ending of the polyatomic group.

Ionic Compound

A chemical substance formed by the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal, forming a rigid crystal lattice with high melting and boiling points that conducts electricity in aqueous solution and is typically solid at room temperature.

Molecular (Covalent) Compound

A chemical substance formed when two or more non-metal atoms share pairs of valence electrons to achieve stable electron configurations, which can exist as solids, liquids, or gases at room temperature.

Empirical Properties of Acids

Observable macroscopic characteristics of acidic aqueous solutions, including a sour taste, a pH value between $0$ and $7$, turning indicator paper red, and the ability to neutralize bases.

Empirical Properties of Bases

Observable macroscopic characteristics of basic aqueous solutions, including a bitter taste, a pH value between $7$ and $14$, turning indicator paper blue, and the ability to neutralize acids.

'-ate' to '-ic' Acid Naming Rule

The oxyacid naming convention (associated with the mnemonic 'I ate something icky') stating that polyatomic ions ending in '-ate' produce acids with the suffix '-ic acid' (such as aqueous hydrogen sulfate becoming sulfuric acid).

'-ite' to '-ous' Acid Naming Rule

The oxyacid naming convention (associated with the mnemonic 'Sprite is delicious') stating that polyatomic ions ending in '-ite' produce acids with the suffix '-ous acid' (such as aqueous hydrogen chlorite becoming chlorous acid).

Exothermic Bond Formation

The thermodynamic principle stating that the creation or formation of chemical bonds between atoms releases energy to the surroundings.

Endothermic Bond Breaking

The thermodynamic principle stating that breaking existing chemical bonds between atoms requires an input or absorption of energy.

Lewis Dot Diagram

A graphic model representing an atom's valence electrons as dots positioned clockwise into four quadrants around the element's atomic symbol, with a maximum of two electrons per quadrant.

Base Nomenclature

The naming format applied to bases that mirrors ionic naming by combining the cation metal name with 'hydroxide' and appending the aqueous state notation, as seen in $NaOH(aq)$ or $Sr(OH)_2(aq)$.

Cation

A positively charged ion formed when a neutral metal atom loses valence electrons to achieve a stable, full valence shell.

Anion

A negatively charged ion formed when a neutral non-metal atom gains valence electrons to achieve a stable, full valence shell.