AP Psychology Unit 1 A 🧠⋆.ೃ࿔*:･

Excitatory

Increases the likelihood that a neuron will fire.

Inhibitory

Decreases the likelihood that a neuron will fire.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement, learning, and memory.

Norepinephrine

Neurotransmitter involved in alertness, attention, and arousal.

Glutamate

The brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter; important for learning and memory.

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter involved in movement, motivation, reward, and learning.

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter involved in mood, sleep, and appetite.

GABA

The brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter; reduces neural activity.

Substance P

Neuropeptide involved in transmitting pain signals.

Endorphins

Natural chemicals that reduce pain and can produce pleasure.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

An autoimmune disease that damages myelin in the central nervous system, disrupting communication between neurons.

Myasthenia Gravis

An autoimmune disorder that disrupts communication between nerves and muscles.

Psychoactive Drugs

Substances that affect consciousness, mood, perception, or behavior by acting on the nervous system.

Depressants

Substances that slow central nervous system activity.

Alcohol

A depressant that slows neural activity and impairs judgment, coordination, and memory.

Stimulants

Substances that increase central nervous system activity and alertness.

Caffeine

A stimulant that blocks adenosine receptors, reducing feelings of sleepiness.

Cocaine

A powerful stimulant that increases dopamine signaling in the brain.

Hallucinogens

Substances that alter perception, thoughts, and sensory experiences.

Marijuana (Cannabis)

A substance containing compounds such as THC that can alter perception, memory, coordination, and mood.

Opioids

Substances that act on opioid receptors to reduce pain and may produce euphoria.

Heroin

An illegal opioid associated with a high risk of addiction and overdose.

Tolerance

Reduced response to a substance after repeated use, sometimes resulting in needing more for the same effect.

Addiction

A condition involving compulsive substance use despite harmful consequences.

Physical Dependence

The body adapts to a substance, potentially causing withdrawal symptoms when it is stopped.

Psychological Dependence

Emotional or mental reliance on a substance to feel normal or cope with certain situations.

Withdrawal

Physical or psychological symptoms that occur when a person reduces or stops using a substance their body has adapted to.

Brainstem

Connects the brain to the spinal cord and supports essential survival functions.

Medulla

Controls vital automatic functions, including breathing and heart rate.

Pons

Brainstem structure involved in sleep, arousal, and coordination of information.

Cerebellum

Coordinates balance, posture, movement, and motor learning.

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

Network involved in alertness, arousal, attention, and the sleep-wake cycle.

Reward Center

A group of interconnected brain regions involved in reward, motivation, and reinforcement.

Hippocampus

Brain structure essential for forming new explicit memories and supporting spatial memory.

Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA)

Midbrain region containing dopamine-producing neurons involved in reward and motivation.

Nucleus Accumbens

Brain region involved in reward, motivation, and reinforcement learning.

Prefrontal Cortex

The frontmost part of the frontal lobes; involved in planning, judgment, decision-making, impulse control, and executive functions.

Limbic System

A group of interconnected brain structures involved in emotion, motivation, and memory.

Thalamus

The brain's major sensory relay station, directing most sensory information to the cerebral cortex.

Hypothalamus

Regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature, and hormone-related functions.

Pituitary Gland

An endocrine gland regulated by the hypothalamus that releases hormones affecting growth and other glands.

Amygdala

Brain structure involved in processing emotions, especially fear and threat.

Corpus Callosum

A thick bundle of nerve fibers connecting the brain's left and right hemispheres.

Lobes

The four major divisions of the cerebral cortex: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital.

Frontal Lobes

Involved in planning, judgment, voluntary movement, and aspects of personality.

Motor Cortex

A strip of cortex at the rear of the frontal lobe that controls voluntary movement.

Parietal Lobes

Process bodily sensations and spatial information.

Association Areas

Cortical regions that integrate information and support complex thinking, memory, and language.

Somatosensory Cortex

A strip of cortex in the parietal lobe that processes touch and bodily sensations.

Occipital Lobes

Brain regions primarily responsible for processing visual information.

Temporal Lobes

Involved in hearing, language, and aspects of memory.

Contralaterality

Each cerebral hemisphere primarily controls or processes the opposite side of the body.

Brain Lateralization

The specialization of certain functions in one hemisphere more than the other.

Split Brain / Hemispherectomy

Split-brain surgery severs the corpus callosum; hemispherectomy removes or disconnects a cerebral hemisphere in certain medical cases.

Broca's Area

A region, usually in the left frontal lobe, important for speech production.

Wernicke's Area

A region traditionally associated with language comprehension, usually in the left temporal region.

Aphasia

A language impairment caused by brain damage that affects speaking, understanding, reading, or writing.

Brain Plasticity (Neuroplasticity)

The brain's ability to change its connections and organization through learning, experience, or recovery.

Structural Brain Scans

Imaging methods that show the brain's anatomy and physical structures.

CAT / CT Scan

Computed tomography uses X-rays to create cross-sectional images of the brain.

MRI Scan

Magnetic resonance imaging uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed images of brain structures.

Functional Brain Scans

Methods that measure or estimate brain activity rather than just anatomy.

PET Scan

Positron emission tomography uses a radioactive tracer to measure metabolic activity or other biological processes.

fMRI (Functional MRI)

Measures changes in blood oxygenation associated with brain activity.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Records electrical activity in the brain using electrodes placed on the scalp.

Lesioning

Destroying or removing a specific area of tissue to study its function or treat certain conditions.

Excitatory vs. Inhibitory

Glutamate increases the likelihood of neural firing, while GABA decreases it.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Helps your arm muscles move when you write.

Norepinephrine

Helps you become alert during a stressful situation.

Glutamate

Helps strengthen neural connections while learning new information.

Dopamine

Contributes to motivation when working toward a goal.

Serotonin

Helps regulate sleep and emotional functioning.

GABA

Helps calm neural activity in the nervous system.

Substance P

Helps communicate pain after an injury.

Endorphins

May contribute to feeling better after physical activity.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

A person experiences weakness, numbness, or vision problems because myelin is damaged.

Myasthenia Gravis

A person experiences drooping eyelids or muscle weakness because nerve-to-muscle communication is disrupted.

Psychoactive Drugs

Caffeine affects alertness, while alcohol affects coordination and judgment.

Depressants

A sedative medication may slow nervous system activity and cause drowsiness.

Alcohol

A person has difficulty coordinating movements after drinking.

Stimulants

Caffeine can temporarily increase alertness.

Caffeine

Someone drinks coffee and feels less sleepy.

Cocaine

Cocaine can produce a short-lived feeling of euphoria and increased alertness.

Hallucinogens

A person may perceive colors or sounds differently after taking a hallucinogen.

Marijuana (Cannabis)

THC may make it harder to remember recently learned information.

Opioids

Morphine is used medically to treat severe pain.

Heroin

Heroin can dangerously slow breathing and cause a life-threatening overdose.

Tolerance

A person experiences less effect from the same amount of a substance after repeated use.

Addiction

Someone continues using a substance despite serious problems in their relationships or daily life.

Physical Dependence

A person develops physical symptoms after stopping a substance their body has adapted to.

Psychological Dependence

Someone feels they need a substance to cope with stress.

Withdrawal

A person who regularly consumes caffeine develops headaches and fatigue after stopping.

Brainstem

Helps maintain automatic functions such as breathing.

Medulla

Helps regulate breathing and heart rate while you sleep.

Pons

Helps regulate sleep.

Cerebellum

Helps you maintain balance while riding a bicycle.

Reticular Activating System

Helps you wake up and pay attention in class.

Reward Center

Receiving a reward after completing a task can motivate you to repeat the behavior.

Hippocampus

Helps you remember information learned during a history lesson.

Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA)

Dopamine neurons in this region become active during certain rewarding experiences.