Psychology Chapters 6-8: Learning, Memory, Thinking & Intelligence

Vocabulary flashcards generated from lecture notes covering key concepts in Learning, Memory, Thinking, and Intelligence.

Non-Associative Learning

Learning involving one stimulus rather than connecting two things.

Habituation

Decreased response after repeated exposure to a stimulus.

Sensitization

Increased response after repeated exposure to a stimulus.

Associative Learning

Learning that two or more pieces of information are related.

Classical Conditioning

Learning that one stimulus predicts another stimulus.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally produces a response without needing to be learned.

Unconditioned Response (UR)

A natural, automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

An originally neutral stimulus that becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

Acquisition

The process of forming the association between the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus.

Extinction

The weakening of the conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

An extinguished response that returns after a rest period.

Generalization

When similar stimuli produce the same learned response.

Discrimination

Learning to distinguish between similar stimuli.

Operant Conditioning

Learning in which consequences influence whether a behavior happens more or less often.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding something desirable to increase a behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing or avoiding something unpleasant to increase a behavior.

Positive Punishment

Adding something unpleasant to decrease a behavior.

Negative Punishment

Removing something desirable to decrease a behavior.

Observational Learning

Learning by watching other people.

Modeling

Learning a behavior by observing someone else perform it.

Vicarious Conditioning

Learning from watching someone else experience consequences.

Encoding

Getting information into memory.

Storage

Maintaining information over time.

Retrieval

Accessing stored information.

Sensory Memory

Very brief storage of sensory information.

Short-Term / Working Memory

Temporary storage that holds information you are actively using.

Long-Term Memory

Relatively permanent storage that can hold information for long periods.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating information over and over to maintain it temporarily.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Connecting new information to meaning, prior knowledge, or personal experiences.

Explicit Memory

Conscious memories that you intentionally recall.

Episodic Memory

Memory for personal experiences and events.

Semantic Memory

Memory for facts and general knowledge.

Implicit Memory

Memory that influences behavior without conscious recollection.

Procedural Memory

Memory for how to perform skills.

Retrieval Cues

Information that helps you access a memory.

Forgetting

Failure to retrieve information from memory.

Persistence

Unwanted memories that continue to come back.

Distortion

When a memory becomes altered or inaccurate.

Thinking

Mentally manipulating representations of information.

Analogical Representation

Mental representation with some physical characteristics of the object.

Symbolic Representation

Abstract representation using words or ideas.

Mental Maps

Mental representations of physical spaces combining analogical and symbolic information.

Schema

Organized collection of knowledge, ideas, and experiences that helps you interpret information and guide behavior.

Stereotypes

Schemas about people or groups based on group membership.

Prototype Model

A model where a category is represented by its best or most typical example.

Exemplar Model

A model where you categorize something based on specific examples you have encountered.

Reasoning

Using information to determine whether a conclusion is valid or reasonable.

Informal Reasoning

Reasoning based more on opinions or personal judgment.

Formal Reasoning

Reasoning that uses logical and objective methods.

Confirmation Bias

Looking for information that supports what you already believe while ignoring contradictory evidence.

Illusory Correlation

Believing that two things are related when they are not, or exaggerating their relationship.

Hindsight Bias

Believing, after something happens, that "I knew that was going to happen."

Decision Making

Selecting the best alternative among multiple options.

Algorithms

A systematic set of steps or procedures used to solve a problem or make a decision.

Heuristic

A quick mental shortcut used to make judgments.

Availability Heuristic

Judging something based on how easily examples come to mind.

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging something based on how much it resembles your prototype.

Affect Heuristic

Making decisions based heavily on your current emotions or feelings.

Framing

The way information is presented, which can influence how people perceive it and what decision they make.

Paradox of Choice

Having too many options, which can make decision-making harder.

Maximizers

People who want to find the absolute best or perfect choice.

Satisficers

People who choose something that is good enough.

Subgoals

Breaking a large problem into smaller steps.

Working Backward

Starting with the goal and working backward toward the starting point.

Analogy

Using a similar familiar problem to help solve a new problem.

Insight

Sudden realization of the solution to a problem.

Restructuring

Changing how you think about a problem.

Mental Set

Tendency to use a solution that worked in the past, even when it is not the best solution now.

Functional Fixedness

Seeing an object only in terms of its usual function.

Spearman's General Intelligence

The idea that a general mental ability influences many different intellectual abilities.

Fluid Intelligence

Ability to solve new or unfamiliar problems.

Crystallized Intelligence

Knowledge and skills gained through experience.

Divergent Thinking

Generating multiple possible solutions.

Convergent Thinking

Finding the single best or correct solution.

Analytical Intelligence

Intelligence involving analyzing information, similar to traditional intelligence tests.

Creative Intelligence

Intelligence involving novel ideas and solving unfamiliar problems.

Practical Intelligence

Intelligence involving applying knowledge to everyday situations.

Emotional Intelligence

Ability involving managing emotions, using emotions to guide thoughts/actions, recognizing others' emotions, and understanding emotional language.

Reliability

How consistently a test produces similar results.

Validity

How well a test actually measures what it claims to measure.

Achievement Test

A test that measures what you have already learned.

Aptitude Test

A test that measures your potential or ability to learn or perform in the future.

IQ Formula

$$\text{IQ} = \frac{\text{Mental Age}}{\text{Chronological Age}} \times 100$$