AP Psych Unit 1

What is psychology?

Scientific study of behaviour and mental processes

What is nature?

Heredity, genetic /predisposed characteristics that influence physical, behavional, and mental traits and processes

What is nurture?

Environmental factors, external factors that one experiences, like education.

Sickle cell disease, symptoms, cause

genetic condition where red blood cells (normally round) take a crescent like shape.

• can clog blood vessels and block blood flow, causing high fever, severe pain, swelling, tissue damage, and death at early age for people with two copies of the sickle cell

• Caused by genetic mutation of red blood cells

How is Darwin’s theory of natural selection related to sickle cell disease?

sickle cell is expected to diss apear fram humans westime

Darwin’s theory of natural selection

Organisms with traits that help them survive are more likely to pass the traits to offsprings

Malaria

life-threatening disease spread by mosquitoes infected with plasmodium parasites

sickle cell anemia

when due to shoer lifespan of sickle cell, patients have less red blood cells

what does genetic variation contribute to?

to a species adaptation to its environment

how much chromosomes does each egg and sperm have?

23

chromosome

long string of DNA

DNA

helix shaped molecule made of nucleotide base pairs. in each chromosome, DNA make genes that control/partially control traits

allele

specific version of a gene

zygote

46 chromosomes produced by sperm and egg

phenotype

physical characteristics of offspring

genotype

genetic makeup of offspring

polygenic

traits controlled by multiple genes

monogenic

traits controlled by one gene, typically contains dominant and recessive alleles

what are the result of dominant and recessive allele combinations on phenotypes?

Dom + Dom = Dom

Dom + Rec = Dom

Rec + Rec = Rec

homozygous

two of the same type pf allele (ww, WW)

Heterozygous

different alleles (Ww)

gene mutations

Sudden, permenant change in a gene (can be harmful, beneficial, neutral)

theory of evolution

individuals best adapted to their particular environments are more likely to reproduce

variability

differences in genes and traits among individuals

genetic diversity

variety of genes and alleles in the population (allows some peopl to perfom better when the environment changes)

recessive genetic disorder

disorder that typically requires 2 disease recessive alleles, like PKU

range of reaction

our genes set the boundaries within which we can operate, and our environments interacts with the genes to determine where in that range we fall

• Genes set definite limits on potential, environments determines how much of that potential is achieved

genetic environmental correlation

genes influence our environment, and our environment influences our genes

epigenetics

studies of how the same genotype can be expressed differently

heredity

genetic traits passed from parent to offspring

interaction

how heredity and environment work together to shape behaviour

evolutionary psychology

explains behaviour through natural selection and its effect on survival and reproduction

sensation

detecting stimuli through the senses

reflex

involuntary and nearly instantaneous movement response to stimulus

reflex arc

part of the nervous system responsible for reflex

What is the nervous system composed of?

Glial cells, neurons

Glial cells (glia), their roles

• provides scaffolding

• Helps neurons line up closely with eachother, allows neuronal communication

• Provide insulation for neurons

• Transports nutrients and waste products

Mediate immune system

What did the work from Susana herculano houzels suggest about neurons and glial cells?

1:1 ratio of neurons and glial cells

Neuron (definition)

Interconnected info processor

Neuron (parts)

• Semipermeable membrane

• Soma

• Dendrites

• axon

• Synaptic end bulbs

• Neurotransmitters

• Myelin sheath

• Nodes of ranvier

• Axon terminal

Semipermeable membrane

Makes up neuron outer surface, lets small, neutral molecules pass and stops the large charged ones

Soma

Cell body, contains nucleus

Dendrites

Receive signals from other neurons

Axon

Major extension from soma

Synaptic end bulb

Terminal buttons, contains synaptic vesicles

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers of nervous system inside synaptic vesicles

Myelin sheath

Fatty substance formed by glia, insulator that increases signal travel speed

nodes of ranvier

Gaps between myelin sheath

PKU (phenylketonuria)

Genetic disorder causing reduction of myelin and abnormalities in white matter cortical and sub cortical structures, causing : severe cognitive deficiencies, exaggerated reflex, seizures

MS(multiple sclerosis)

Autoimmune disorder involving large loss of myelin sheath throughout nervous system, preventing quick neuronal transmission, leads to dizziness, fatigue, loss of motor control, sexual dysfunction

Synaptic clef

Small space between two neurons, site for neuronal communication

Receptors

Protein on surface where neurotransmitters attach, varying in shapes that match different neurotransmitters. Lock and key relationship

Stimulus

Sensory input(heat, taste, light) converted to electrical signals by sensory receptors

neuronal membrane

separates extracellular and intracellular fluid/cytoplasm

membrane potential

electrical charge difference across membrane

resting potential

neuron at rest with ions ready to rush across membrane

• high connection = low concentration

• pos ions => neg charge environment

sodium potassium pump

Active transport mechanism that pumps $3\,\text{Na}^+$ out of the cell and $2\,\text{K}^+$ in, restoring the negative internal charge at resting potential.

Threshold of excitation

The specific charge level across the membrane at which an action potential is initiated.

Peak action potential

The highest positive charge during an electrical impulse, where $\text{Na}^+$ channels close and $\text{K}^+$ channels open.

Repolarization

Phase where $\text{Na}^+$ channels close and $\text{K}^+$ channels open, allowing $\text{K}^+$ to exit and driving the membrane charge back toward negative.

Hyperpolarization

Phase during which the inside of the cell briefly becomes more negative than the standard resting potential.

Action potential

Electrical signal that moves from the soma down the axon to the axon terminal.

Saltatory conduction

The jumping of an electrical signal from one node of Ranvier to the next along a myelinated axon.

Reuptake

The reabsorption of excess neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft back into the presynaptic neuron.

Electrochemical event

Neuronal communication that is electrical within the neuron and chemical across the synapse.

Psychotropic medication

Drugs prescribed to treat psychiatric symptoms by restoring balance to neurotransmitter systems.

Agonist

Chemical or drug that mimics a neurotransmitter at the receptor site, strengthening its effects.

Antagonist

Chemical or drug that blocks or impedes the normal activity of a neurotransmitter at the receptor site.

Reuptake inhibitor

Drug that prevents unused neurotransmitters from being absorbed back into the neuron, keeping them active in the synaptic cleft longer (e.g., SSRIs).

Acetylcholine

• Involved in: Muscle action and memory
• Potential behavioral effect: Increased arousal and enhanced cognition

Beta-endorphin

• Involved in: Pain and pleasure
• Potential behavioral effect: Decreased anxiety and decreased tension

Dopamine

• Involved in: Mood, sleep, and learning
• Potential behavioral effect: Increased pleasure and suppressed appetite

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

• Involved in: Brain function and sleep
• Potential behavioral effect: Decreased anxiety and decreased tension

Glutamate

• Involved in: Memory and learning
• Potential behavioral effect: Increased learning and enhanced memory

Norepinephrine

• Involved in: Heart, intestines, and alertness
• Potential behavioral effect: Increased arousal and suppressed appetite

Serotonin

• Involved in: Mood and sleep
• Potential behavioral effect: Modulated mood and suppressed appetite

Central nervous system (CNS)

Division of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Division of the nervous system connecting the central nervous system to the rest of the body.

Nerves

Thick bundles of axons that carry signals between the central nervous system and peripheral body structures.

Somatic nervous system

Subdivision of the peripheral nervous system associated with conscious or voluntary activities.

Motor neurons

Efferent nerve fibers that move away from the central nervous system, carrying instructions to the muscles.

Sensory neurons

Afferent nerve fibers that move toward the central nervous system, carrying sensory information.

Autonomic nervous system

Subdivision of the peripheral nervous system controlling involuntary visceral operations of internal organs and glands.

Sympathetic nervous system

Branch of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for stress-related activities.

Parasympathetic nervous system

Branch of the autonomic nervous system that returns the body to routine, day-to-day operations.

Homeostasis

State of internal balance in which biological conditions are maintained at optimal levels.

Fight-or-flight response

Physiological activation by the sympathetic nervous system preparing the body to face threat (dilates pupils, increases heart rate, relaxes bladder, releases glucose).

Spinal cord

Structure connecting the brain to the outside world, acting as a relay station and controlling local reflexes.

Neuroplasticity

The nervous system's capacity to change and adapt through experience and development by creating new synapses, pruning unused ones, and producing new neurons.

Cerebral cortex

Folded outer surface of the forebrain responsible for higher-level processes like thought, reasoning, emotion, and memory.

Gyri and sulci

Distinctive patterns of folds and bumps (gyri) and the small grooves between them (sulci) on the cerebral cortex.

Longitudinal fissure

Deep prominent groove that separates the brain into left and right hemispheres.

Lateralization

Specialization of function in each hemisphere of the brain.

Corpus callosum

Thick band of neural fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres, enabling communication between them.

Split-brain

Condition resulting from surgical severing of the corpus callosum, often performed to treat severe intractable epilepsy.

Frontal lobe

Anterior region of the brain involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language.

Motor cortex

Strip within the frontal lobe responsible for planning and coordinating voluntary movement.

Prefrontal cortex

Anterior portion of the frontal lobe governing higher-level cognitive functioning.

Broca's area

Region in the left frontal lobe essential for language and speech production.

Parietal lobe

Brain region situated behind the frontal lobe responsible for processing sensory information from across the body.