psych v2

What is the biological perspective in psychology?

An approach that explains behavior and mental processes through biological processes, including the brain, nervous system, hormones, genetics, and their interaction with the environment.

What is consciousness?

Awareness of one's thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and internal or external surroundings. Consciousness varies by state, including wakefulness and sleep.

How do heredity and environment interact to influence behavior?

Genes create biological predispositions, while experiences and surroundings influence how those predispositions develop and are expressed. Behavior reflects their interaction.

What is sensation?

The process by which sensory receptors and the nervous system detect physical stimuli from the environment or body.

What is perception?

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to give it meaning.

Sensation vs. perception: what is the difference?

Sensation detects information; perception organizes and interprets it. Example: the eyes detect light from a face, and the brain recognizes a friend.

What is sensory transduction?

The conversion of physical stimulus energy, such as light or sound, into neural signals the nervous system can process.

What is bottom-up processing?

Processing that starts with incoming sensory details and builds toward an interpretation.

What is top-down processing?

Processing guided by expectations, prior knowledge, experience, and context.

What is the absolute threshold?

The minimum stimulus intensity detected 50% of the time under specified conditions.

What is signal detection theory?

The idea that detecting a stimulus depends on both sensory signal strength and psychological factors such as attention, alertness, motivation, and expectations.

What is the difference threshold (just noticeable difference, or JND)?

The smallest difference between two stimuli that a person can detect about 50% of the time.

What is Weber's law?

The just noticeable difference is a constant proportion of the original stimulus, rather than a fixed amount.

What is sensory adaptation?

Reduced sensitivity to a constant, unchanging stimulus over time. Example: becoming less aware of a room's smell.

What is selective attention?

Focusing conscious awareness on one stimulus or task while filtering out other information.

What is the cocktail party effect?

The ability to notice personally meaningful information, such as one's name, while attending to another conversation.

What is inattentional blindness?

Failing to notice a visible object or event because attention is focused elsewhere.

What is change blindness?

Failing to notice a change in a visual scene.

What is the role of the cornea and lens in vision?

The cornea begins bending incoming light; the lens changes shape to focus light on the retina.

What is the retina?

The light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye containing photoreceptors that begin visual transduction.

What do rods do?

Retinal photoreceptors that are highly sensitive to dim light and support peripheral and black-and-white vision, but provide little color detail.

What do cones do?

Retinal photoreceptors that work best in brighter light and support color vision and fine detail.

What is the fovea?

The central area of the retina with a high concentration of cones; it supports sharp central vision.

What is the optic nerve?

The bundle of retinal ganglion-cell axons that carries visual information from the eye toward the brain.

What is the blind spot?

The point where the optic nerve exits the retina; it has no rods or cones.

What is the role of the cochlea in hearing?

A fluid-filled inner-ear structure where sound vibrations are converted into neural signals by hair cells.

What is place theory of pitch?

The idea that different pitches activate different locations along the basilar membrane in the cochlea; it best explains higher pitches.

What is frequency theory of pitch?

The idea that the firing rate of auditory neurons corresponds to sound frequency; it helps explain lower pitches.

What is the vestibular sense?

The sense of balance and head movement, supported by structures in the inner ear.

What is kinesthesia (the kinesthetic sense)?

The sense of the position and movement of individual body parts.

How do smell and taste relate to sensation?

They are chemical senses: receptors respond to chemicals, and the brain processes signals to create smell and taste experiences.

Why can expectations change perception?

Top-down processing allows context, prior experience, and expectations to influence how sensory input is interpreted.

What is the sleep-wake cycle?

The recurring pattern of sleep and wakefulness influenced by circadian rhythms, sleep pressure, light, behavior, and other factors.

What is a circadian rhythm?

An approximately 24-hour biological cycle that regulates patterns such as sleep, alertness, body temperature, and hormone release.

What can disrupt circadian rhythms?

Jet lag, shift work, irregular sleep schedules, and mistimed exposure to light can disrupt circadian timing.

What is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)?

A region of the hypothalamus that acts as the body's main circadian clock and helps synchronize rhythms to light information.

What role does melatonin play in sleep?

Melatonin is a hormone released more in darkness that signals biological night and helps regulate sleep timing.

What is an EEG, and how is it used in sleep research?

An electroencephalogram (EEG) records electrical activity of the brain. Sleep stages are distinguished partly by characteristic EEG patterns.

What are the two broad categories of sleep?

NREM (non-rapid eye movement) sleep and REM (rapid eye movement) sleep.

What happens during NREM Stage 1?

The transition from wakefulness to sleep; sleep is light, brain activity begins to slow, and hypnagogic sensations may occur.

What are hypnagogic sensations?

Vivid sensory experiences while falling asleep, such as feeling that one is falling or experiencing a sudden jerk. They can occur during the transition into sleep.

What is NREM Stage 2 characterized by?

Light sleep with sleep spindles and K-complexes on the EEG; heart rate and body temperature generally decrease.

What are sleep spindles?

Brief bursts of rhythmic brain activity typically associated with NREM Stage 2; they are involved in sleep-related information processing.

What are K-complexes?

Large, brief EEG waves associated with NREM Stage 2 that may help maintain sleep and respond to environmental stimuli.

What is NREM Stage 3 characterized by?

Deep, slow-wave sleep, with prominent delta waves; waking someone is more difficult than in lighter stages.

Which EEG pattern is associated with NREM Stage 3?

High-amplitude, low-frequency delta waves.

Which stage is classically associated with sleep spindles?

NREM Stage 2. Remember the common distinction: sleep spindles and K-complexes occur in Stage 2; Stage 3 is characterized by slow delta waves.

What is REM sleep?

A sleep stage marked by rapid eye movements, vivid dreaming being more likely, wake-like brain activity, and temporary muscle atonia.

Why is REM sleep called paradoxical sleep?

The brain's EEG activity resembles wakefulness, while most skeletal muscles are temporarily inhibited and the person remains asleep.

What happens to REM periods over the course of a typical night?

REM periods generally become longer and more frequent toward morning, while deep NREM Stage 3 sleep is more concentrated earlier in the night.

What is a typical sleep cycle?

A repeating progression through NREM stages and REM sleep, usually lasting roughly 90 minutes, though cycle length varies.

Do people dream only during REM sleep?

No. Vivid dreams are especially associated with REM, but dreaming or dream-like mental activity can occur in NREM sleep too.

What is REM rebound?

An increase in REM sleep after a period in which REM sleep was reduced or disrupted.

What is sleep debt?

The accumulated difference between how much sleep a person needs and how much they actually obtain.

What is sleep deprivation?

Obtaining insufficient sleep, which can impair attention, memory, mood, decision-making, reaction time, and physical functioning.

How can sleep deprivation affect mental health and cognition?

It can impair attention, learning, memory, emotional regulation, judgment, and reaction time, and can worsen mood.

How can sleep deprivation affect physical health?

It can affect immune functioning, metabolism, cardiovascular health, coordination, and overall daytime performance.

What is sleep's role in memory consolidation?

Sleep helps stabilize and integrate newly learned information, supporting later recall and learning.

What does the restoration theory of sleep propose?

Sleep helps the body and brain recover, repair, and restore resources used during wakefulness.

What is synaptic pruning, and how may sleep relate to it?

Synaptic pruning is the weakening or elimination of some neural connections. Sleep is associated with brain processes that refine neural networks and support efficient learning.

Why is a regular sleep schedule helpful?

It supports consistent circadian timing and can improve sleep quality, alertness, and daytime performance.

What is the activation-synthesis theory of dreaming?

The brain generates dreams by trying to make a coherent story from internally generated neural activity during sleep.

What is the consolidation theory of dreaming?

The idea that dreams may reflect the brain's processing, organizing, and integrating memories and experiences.

Activation-synthesis vs. consolidation theory: key difference?

Activation-synthesis emphasizes the brain interpreting internally generated activity; consolidation theory emphasizes the processing and integration of memories.

What is insomnia?

A sleep disorder involving persistent difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or obtaining restorative sleep despite an adequate opportunity to sleep.

What is narcolepsy?

A sleep disorder involving excessive daytime sleepiness and sudden episodes of sleep; some people experience cataplexy or REM-related symptoms.

What is sleep apnea?

A disorder in which breathing repeatedly stops or becomes shallow during sleep, disrupting sleep and sometimes lowering blood oxygen.

What is somnambulism (sleepwalking)?

A behavior involving walking or other actions while asleep, commonly arising from deep NREM sleep.

What is REM sleep behavior disorder?

A disorder in which the usual muscle paralysis of REM sleep is reduced or absent, allowing a person to physically act out dreams.

Why can sleep disorders affect daytime functioning?

They fragment or reduce restorative sleep, which can impair attention, memory, mood, reaction time, and physical health.

How can healthy sleep habits support well-being?

Consistent sleep and wake times, a suitable sleep environment, and habits that support adequate sleep can improve waking performance and overall health.

Which sleep stages have relatively wake-like EEG activity?

REM sleep has EEG activity resembling wakefulness, despite the person being asleep and skeletal muscles generally being inhibited.

Why can waking someone from deep NREM Stage 3 be difficult?

Stage 3 is deep slow-wave sleep with prominent delta waves and a high arousal threshold.

How does psychology define stress?

The process of responding to demands or challenges perceived as taxing or exceeding available resources.

What is a stressor?

An event, condition, or demand that triggers a stress response.

What is eustress?

Stress experienced as motivating or beneficial, such as manageable pressure that encourages preparation and performance.

What is distress?

Stress experienced as unpleasant, overwhelming, or impairing well-being or performance.

What is the difference between acute and chronic stress?

Acute stress is short-term and tied to an immediate demand; chronic stress is prolonged or repeatedly activated over time.

What are daily hassles?

Small, frequent annoyances or demands that can accumulate and contribute to stress.

What are adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)?

Potentially traumatic or highly stressful experiences during childhood that can influence health and well-being across the lifespan.

What is the fight-or-flight response?

A rapid physiological response to a perceived threat that prepares the body for action, including increased heart rate, breathing, and energy availability.

What is the sympathetic nervous system's role in stress?

It activates the body's rapid arousal response, increasing readiness for action.

What is cortisol?

A hormone released through the body's stress-response system that helps mobilize energy and regulate longer-lasting stress responses; prolonged elevation can be harmful.

What is the HPA axis?

The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, a hormonal system involved in coordinating the body's longer-lasting stress response, including cortisol release.

What is hypertension, and how can chronic stress relate to it?

Hypertension is persistently elevated blood pressure. Repeated stress activation can contribute to cardiovascular strain and elevated blood pressure.

How can chronic stress affect the immune system?

Prolonged stress can dysregulate or suppress aspects of immune functioning, potentially affecting resistance to illness and recovery.

What physical symptoms can stress produce?

Possible effects include headaches, muscle tension, elevated blood pressure, sleep problems, and gastrointestinal symptoms.

How can stress affect the gastrointestinal system?

Stress can alter gut activity and contribute to symptoms such as stomach discomfort, nausea, or changes in digestion.

What is burnout?

A state of emotional, mental, and physical exhaustion associated with prolonged or excessive demands; it may include cynicism or reduced effectiveness.

What is a stress reaction?

The physical, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral response triggered by an appraisal of a demand or threat.

Why does the same event not stress everyone equally?

Stress depends partly on how a person appraises the event, their resources and coping skills, past experience, biology, and available support.

What is health psychology?

The field that studies how biological, psychological, and social factors influence health, illness, health behavior, and coping.

What are Life Change Units (LCUs)?

Scores assigned to life events to estimate the amount of adjustment they require; higher cumulative scores suggest greater life-change demands, but do not predict an individual's health with certainty.

What is the key limitation of using life-event scores to estimate stress?

People differ in how they experience events, and the scores do not fully capture personal meaning, resources, or the effects of daily hassles.

Can a positive event be stressful?

Yes. Positive changes can require adjustment and consume resources, so both desirable and undesirable events can create stress.

Why can stress be helpful in small doses but harmful when prolonged?

Short-term arousal can motivate action, but ongoing activation can interfere with recovery, health, sleep, mood, and cognitive performance.

What is General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)?

Hans Selye's model describing a general pattern of physiological responses to prolonged stress: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

What happens during the alarm stage of GAS?

The stressor is detected and the body's immediate arousal response activates, preparing the person to respond.

What happens during the resistance stage of GAS?

The body attempts to cope with the continuing stressor while maintaining elevated physiological activity.

What happens during the exhaustion stage of GAS?

Prolonged demands deplete the body's capacity to sustain adaptation, increasing vulnerability to fatigue, illness, and reduced functioning.