GEO011 Final

To counter the long-term impacts of climate change, what is our best hope for the future?

Reducing emissions

What are some examples of geoengineering?

- Source level: doing something about growing GHG levels

- impact level: offsetting climate change itself

- Removing GHGs from the atmosphere

- offsetting climate change via decreasing the amount of sunlight

Besides fossil fuel burning, what is another source of GHG emissions?

Deforestation: 11%

Fossil fuel burning: 65%

Where in the world is per-capita energy consumption highest?

developed world

What is the main agricultural emissions?

- Methane, CH4, farming responsible for 6GT CO2/year

- Percentage: 12%

how is water related to energy generation?

Transportation and electricity generation use a considerable amount of water

where does "ozone hole" occur?

South pole

if mitigation efforts are made, and adaptive capacities are enhanced, how will vulnerability change?

it will lessen

How can adaptation help the loss of agricultural productivity?

- change crop varieties, location, & planting schedules in response to changing temperatures & precipitation patterns

- rethinking governmental policies and creation of new institutions to facilitate change at the local level

How is adaptive capacity related to the ethical concerns of climate change?

Ethical concerns may call for action, even when the cost-benefit analysis does not

What are the important factors in assessing the vulnerability of ecosystems to climate change?

- Potential rate of change

- additional stresses imposed by human activity

- barriers to adaptations and migration

Is the capacity for organisms/ecosystems to adapt limited?

yes

Temperatures have been fluctuating on Earth since the planet developed an atmosphere, why is climate change all of the sudden a big problem?

- We can see the CO2 level has fluctuated, however fossil fuel reserves have the capacity to boost atmospheric CO2 level higher and faster than that in the last million years

- Human land use, construction, pollution and other constraints make adaptation a different game than it used to be

Where do many species move to adapt to global warming?

a higher latitude & altitude

What is "CCS"? Is it related to carbon sequestration?

- CSS is carbon capture & storage or it is also carbon sequestration

- IT is related from geoengineering. It is very important for mitigation

What are the other large contributors and their GHG emissions?

- agriculture and forestry: 12

- Industry: 10

- transportation: 7

What is "geoengineering"?

Alternative mitigation that involves using technology to counteract climate change impacts

What is an externality?

the costs of climate change imposed on the world, not on the companies doing the polluting

Examples of renewable energy sources

- wind

- solar

- geothermal

- hydropower

How can we reduce emissions in the transport sector?

- by greater fuel efficiency, increased use of carbon-free and carbon neutral technology

- increase reliance on buses, trains, public transportation, walking, cycling

What are the two highest priorities of waste management sector to reduce GHG emissions?

- *avoidance & reduction*

- reuse, recycle & energy recovery

Where do agricultural emissions mainly come from and what is the percentage?

- developing world

- 75%

How can we, as individuals, modify our lifestyles to help reduce GHG emissions?

- recycle

- bike

- walk

- reduce energy

- carpool

- public transportation

How does the reduction of GHG emissions related to diet?

- livestock are resource intensive, switching from diets heavy in meat to more vegetarian diets may substantially decrease worldwide carbon emissions

Carbon footprint

person contribution to global warming

Are there successful precedents for international cooperation to solve the climate change problem? If so, how are they different than the climate change problem?

Yes, successful examples:

- Montreal Protocool, 1987. Dealt with ozone depletion, banned ozone depleting chemicals

- climate change is more difficult because of fossil fuels are our primary source of energy

Kyoto Protocol

Helped developing countries

- proposed to control GHG emissions

- Two industrialized countries didn't sign. The US & Canada

Post-Kyoto period

- 2007 Bali Action Plan

- 2009 Copenhagen Accord

Adaptation in terms of climate change

offset effects of CO2 buildup

Mitigation in terms of climate change

take actions to reduce CO2 build up

Examples of adaptation & how can it alleviate the threats of sea level rise

First stage: seeks to protect the population and infrastructure through engineering solutions.

- Empolderings -> structurally reclaim inundated land

- Coastal defenses (dikes, beach nourishment) -> create impediments to inundation

Second stage: accommodation

- Allows for some inundation:

~ Flood-Proof structures

~ floating agricultural systems

This & final stage: retreat

- Managed retreat

- building of temporary sea walls

- monitoring of coastal threat to determine if and when evacuation is necessary

Which an example of adaptation?

a. Building a sea wall

b. putting reflective particles into the stratosphere

c. implementing a tax on CO2 emitted into the atmosphere

d. building flood-proof structures near coastal communities

e. A+D

e. A+D

how can adaptation decrease/shift freshwater resources?

- development of sea-water desalinization facilities

- expansion of reservoirs and rainwater storage facilities

- improvements in water-use efficiency and irrigation practices

Adaptive capacity

ability or potential to respond successfully to climate variability and change

Which countries have higher vulnerabilities? How is this related to their adaptive capacity? Is this related to developing versus developed countries?

-China & Africa

- it is related because of their low adaptive capacity

- It is related to developing countries because adaptation is more challenging for poorer countries (few resources)

Will the poor in developing countries experience a greater loss as a result of climate change? Are they responsible for climate change? IF not, who is? What does this imply?

Climate change will likely redistribute resources in a "reverse Robin Hood" fashion

- unfair to developing countries

- cost of inaction to these nations may be incalculable

According to economists, how does the cost of emissions reduction compare to the economic damage that will result from climate change? What does this imply, action or inaction?

Cost of emission is smaller than economic damage as a result from climate change

- action

What is the "social cost of carbon" (SCC)? How is SCC estimated?

SCC is the cost to society in terms of environmental and financial

- of emitting one additional metric ton of carbon over a time horizon

What is the SCC's central value? What is used for?

- Central estimates are ~$30-40

- Can be used to sell the value of carbon credit

Is reducing emissions related to mitigation? How can we mitigate against climate change?

- YES it is related

- it can be readily achieved by the significant reduction of fossil fuel burning

what economic sectors are the largest contributors o GHG emissions? Which sector is the largest?

energy supply sector: 17 GT CO2 per year

If point emission is credited, which sector has the largest potential for GHG reductions, at the point of emissions or end use?

- The largest potential for reduction depends on point emissions or end use

- largest reduction for point emissions: energy supply sector

- largest reduction for end use: buildings sector

What is the law of "diminishing returns"?

investing larger and larger amounts of money into carbon emission reductions leads to smaller incremental gains (EXCEPT for the FORESTRY sector)

Are the examples for geoengineering sound/safe strategies? Do they have problems? If so, then why are they being discussed?

- In general they have problems. They cannot solve the problem of ocean acidification, and ALSO they cannot concur regional impacts. If stopped, the full impact of warming unmasked

- Iron fertilization will only speed up cycling of carbon between the atmosphere and the upper ocean

- They are being discussed because each of the proposed techniques has possible shortcomings and poses a potential danger

- If we are backed into a corner and face with irreversible and dangerous climate change, we may need to resort to these schemes at least as partial solutions

If there are no insurmountable technological or scientific reasons why we can't mitigate against climate change, why has it been difficult to do so?

The only barrier is society itself

Are there economic incentives to mitigate? If not, why not?

No, there are a few economic incentives.

- Emission reductions sufficient to stabilize the climate will not occur themselves.

Why are regulations needed to reduce GHGs?

Emission reductions sufficient to stabilize the climate will not occur themselves

Examples of externality

- The tragedy of the commons: when people can exploit and degrade a common asset for free, the asset tends to be over utilized

- Root economic cause of climate change problem -> free for emitters to dump CO2 into atmosphere

What is a potential solution to externalities?

- turning the SCC into a carbon cost that is paid by the consumer who emits

Carbon tax

aka carbon tax, it is the amount the consumer must pay (as a tax or part of an emission permit) for the emission of one metric ton of CO2

How would a carbon tax affect consumption and development of non-carbon energy sources?

- reduce consumption

- provide an incentive for the development of non-carbon energy sources

Advantage of carbon tax

it will shift the cost of emissions back on the emitter -> polluter pays

Also, it is cheaper than a conventional approach

What is the UC's Carbon Neutrality Initiative (CNI)?

Goal of zero carbon emissions by 2025

What are some measures UC has implemented as part of this initiative?

- UCD: unveiled solar power plant, 14% of UCD needed

- 5 point solar park in Frensno

What has UCR done for CNI?

Solar farm with 4 MW- 3% of campus needs

What does CO2 equivalent mean?

expresses combined impact of multiple GHGs in terms of the equivalent amount of CO2

What are the contributions of different sectors to of GHG emissions?

- Energy supply

- transport

- buildings

- industry

- agriculture

- forestry and waste management

Examples of carbon-free/carbon-neutral energy sources

Solar, wind, nuclear (nonrenewable)

what is currently the most wide-spread renewable energy source? can this be significantly expanded in the future?

- hydroelectric

- No, it can't be significantly expanded because most of the large rivers are already damned

What are some cons of nuclear & hydropower?

- nuclear: restricted availability, less support, reactor safety, nuclear waste, expensive to build, terrorist, Chernobyl, etc

- hydropower: ecosystem damage, loss of lands, CH4 emissions, relocation

Which country produces the most nuclear energy?

United States

Which country produces the HIGHEST PERCENTAGE of its electrical energy from nuclear reactors?

France

- As of 2006, 80%

"Peak Oil"

projected impending depletion of readily available petroleum reserves

Will "peak oil" lead to stabilization of GHG concentrations? why?

It will not lead to stabilization because primary sources for the energy sector (coal and natural gas) could last for centuries

How have GHG emissions in the transport sector changed?

it's increasing

How is the transport sector projected to change? why?

Freight transportation bc of global economic growth & population

What countries are projected to dramatically increase their share of transport-related emissions?

developing countries, like China & India

What are some environmentally friendly alternatives to traditional gasoline-powered automobiles? Are biofuels involved?

- hydrogen fueling car

- electric car

- hybrid car

Yes biofuels are incolved

How can public policy measures help the reduction of emissions?

- Care for urban planning

- government can raise mandatory fuel standards

- taxation can encourage the use of efficient vehicles

What are the obstacles to the success of the public policy measures?

- persistence preference of poor fuel efficient vehicles

-targeted ad campaigns

- lobbying to keep fuel standards low

How can the building sector reduce GHG emissions?

- reduce energy consumption

- switch to low carbon and carbon-free energy sources

How can the industrial sector reduce GHG emissions?

- replace electric motors

- recycled material for fuel

- fix leads in furnaces and air and steam lines

How can the agriculture sector reduce GHG emissions?

- more efficient fertilizer delivery methods can minimize N2O

- Rice paddies

- Use alternative feeds

- reducing soil tillage

How can the forestry sector reduce GHG emissions?

- prevent deforestation

How can the waste management sector reduce GHG emissions?

- methane capture

- increased composting/recycling

What are the problems that limit prospects for the widespread use of corn-based ethanol as a fuel?

- limited corn based

- ethical consideration, food or fuel

- corn to ethanol not very efficient

Why does switchgrass have the potential to yield biofuel more efficiently than corn?

- more hardy with respect to soil & climate conditions

- requires less fertilizer relative to corn

- not a food crop

in the forest sector, how is CO2 released into the atmosphere?

deforestation

combustion of timber for energy

Where does deforestation/reforestation happen?

- reforestation (carbon source): US & Europe (now)

- deforestation (carbon sink): developing nations

Why is water-efficient alternative energy production prudent?

substitution of alternative energies for fossil fuels can certainly reduce carbon consumption

- biofuel production is extremely water intensive

- wind & solar require little water

- geothermal and hydroelectric are extremely water sensitive

What is the damage of acid rain?

- fish and aquatic life dies

- trees killed

- destroyed historical structures

Why is the "ozone hole" harmful?

- increase skin cancer

- damage to plants & animals

why is international cooperation essential for solving the climate change problem?

- atmosphere does not recognize national boundaries

- no single nation can solve the problems caused by atmospheric pollutants

What are some climate change policies?

- Clean Air Act of 1990

- The Montreal Protocol

- UNFCC

- Paris Agreement

What is the UNFCCC?

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.

- It is the first international treaty

What was the first international treaty?

THe UNFCCC, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

Paris Agreement

Zero GHG emissions proposed to limit global warming

- 55 and 55

2007 Bali Action Plan

developed nation agreed to a "roadmap" involving quantified emission limitation and eduction objectives, while ensuring the compatibility of efforts among them, taking into account different in their national circumstances

- 2009 Copenhagen Accord

- started global warming should be limited to below 2 degrees C warming

- recognizes that "deep cuts in global emissions are required" & that " a low-emission development strategy is indispensable to sustainable development"

- lack of binding GHG reductions

- major emission commitments from China & India

- EU and 17 developed nations have submitted specific carbon reduction targets

- financial support for developing countries

What does sustainable development mean? What does it require?

A responsible society that strives to meet its needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs

- Requires us to protect ecosystems from destruction and consume natural resources at a rate not greater than nature can provide

There are many gaps in our understanding climate change. Should this justify inaction? why or why not? Why has climate change been described as a problem with a huge "procrastination penalty"?

- it should not justify inaction, because of uncertain abounds

- "procrastination penalty": with each passing year of inaction, stabilizing Earth's climate becomes increasingly more difficult

Which is an example of mitigation?

a. Building a sea wall

b. Putting reflective particles into the stratosphere

c. Implementing a tax on CO2 emitted into the atmosphere

d. Building flood-proof structures near coastal communities

e. B + C

e. B + C

A carbon cost would...

a. Reduce consumption of GHG-intensive products

b. Spur technological innovation

c. Provide an incentive for non-carbon energy sources

d. Raise the $ of goods/services in proportion to their carbon footprint

e. All of the above

e. All of the above

Meeting the rising global demand for energy supply, while slowing the rate of fossil fuel emissions requires?

a. Greater efficiency in power generation

b. Increased use of carbon free or carbon neutral energy sources

c. Continued development of CCS technologies

d. All of the above

d. All of the above

Hydroelectric Power...

a. Can be greatly expanded

b. Is currently the largest renewable energy source

c. Has no negative environmental impacts

d. Generate electricity through the gravitational force of falling/flowing water

e. B + D

e. B+D

Options to reduce carbon emissions in the transportation sector include:

a. electric/hybrid vehicles

b. Biofuels

c. Increased reliance on public transportation

d. Use cars less

e. All of the above

e. all of the above

Downsides of biofuels include:

a. Large water consumption

b. Trading food for energy

c. Net source of CO2

d. A+B

e. A+B+C

d. A+ B

Geoengineering includes...

a. Deploy solar shields into space

b. Iron fertilization in ocean

c. Desert greening

d. Carbon capture and storage (CCS)

e. All of the above

e. All of the above

The first international treaty to set the agenda to slow and stabilize climate change is called

a. Kyoto Protocol

b. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

c. Bali Action Plan

d. Copenhagen Accord

e. Paris Agreement

b. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)