ARCH 210 Roman Architecture

caput mundi

head of the word—Rome

·       Roman Empire was at its greatest geographical size in 106 CE under Emperor Trajan—Atlantic to across North Africa, to Turkey and Asia Minor

·       Even though Rome took over the Hellenic world’s land, Greek culture and art took over the Roman Empire

foundation of Rome

753 BCE—Etruscan kings rule in first centuries

·       Mythical founding on April 21, 753 BCE, 5 centuries later, considered caput mundi—head of the world

·       Conquering through rational military administration and civil law

·       Borrowed city models on Hellenistic cities

·       Designed new type of city—public space and public architecture provided a formal envelop for daily existence

·       Romans offered conquered people improved quality of life

·       Used arches, vaults, concrete construction to make unprecedented structures

·       Rome situated upstream from mouth of Tiber River—far enough away from sea to escape coastal invasion, but close enough to have sea trade

·       Synoikismos—villages join together under a single legal code—prioritization of law over blood relations

Roman Republic

508 BCE

·       Senatorial class rules by democratic process with consent of the other classes

·       Executive authority belonged to Senate—patrician landowners, who negotiated policies with plebeians, who elected representatives from the lower classes

Roman Empire

27 BCE—Augustus declared emperor

·       Caesar’s adopted heir, Augustus, dismantled the republic and became the first Roman princeps—and created a parallel government of appointed officials who could override the will of the Senate

·       Initiated series of projects for shared public spaces/grand monuments

Additional classical orders

Tuscan (comes from Etruria) and Composite

Components of the true arch

·       Voussoir: wedge shaped brick or stone forming a unit of an arch

·       Archivolt: the whole line of voussoirs that comprise an arch or one facet of it

·       Keystone: the central stone of an arch or rib, acts as a lock to secure other voussoirs against downward and outward forces

·       Can support more than post and lintel structure—arch can span greater distances

Arcuated construction

·       Keystone

·       Voussoirs

·       Springing: empty space under an arch

·       Pier: the vertical stack of bricks on each side of an arch

·       Bay: from one pier to another, covering an entire arch unit

·       Centering: pole down the middle of an arch

Pont du Gard (aqueduct)

Nimes, France, 19 BCE, Roman

·       Built to carry water over long distances

·       Mount springs are pumped for water through tunnels

·       Lower level creates a bridge for human and animal traffic

·       Upper level has a channel and cover to keep the water clean

·       Very gradual slope downhill

Arcuated construction extended into the third dimension

·       Barrel vault: masonry ceiling of continuous semi-circular section, based on the arch; unbroken by any cross-vaults

·       Groin vault: masonry ceiling composed of 2 barrel vaults intersecting at right angles

·       Bay: architectural unit made up of a set of columns and their vault that defines a repeated shape

·       Buttressing is needed to make an arch wider

Concrete

·       Caementitium, especially after the 2^nd century CE

·       Moldable to almost any geometric shape using a formwork (temporary wooden scaffold)

Opus insertum

irregular wall facing using rough stones

Opus reticularum

diagonally set bricks

Opus testaceum

thinly stacked bricks

Opus mixtum

alternating rows of brick and stone

Pomerium

·       a furrowed marking the boundary around the sacred/civic zone at the heart of Rome, encompassing its greatest civic spaces and religious shrines; this became the boundary of the city proper and was gradually expanded

Capitoline Hill

foot of the hill is where people think of as the center of Rome

Forum Romanum: and the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill

5th century BCE

Rome’s foundational spaces, sites of cultural identity as well as government, religion, commerce

·       During republican period, it was where people gathered

The Forum

·       open, public space, usually at the heart of the city, mixing administrative, religious, commercial, memorial functions. Usually surrounded by large, institutional structures for those purposes—similar to Agora

·       Rostrum: overlooking the forum space, speaker’s platform, where leaders addressed people

Roman city “kit”

Buildings in Rome are repeated as types in other cities throughout the empire

·       Buildings housing necessary institutions throughout the cities of the provinces

·       This regularity also creates Romanitas—a feeling and identity of “Romanness”—spread to many Roman cities throughout the vast territory the empire controlled. Helped Rome govern a vast empire

·       7 parts: forum, basilica, commemorative monument, temple/religious space, bath, market, entertainment venue

·       Often arranged around two intersecting, main streets: cardos (NS) and decumanus (EW)

·       Based on Castrum: typical Roman military camp, 1^st century BCE; rectangular plan, walled area with cardo and decumanus meeting at center

Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus

·       greatest god in Roman pantheon

·       On Capitoline Hill

·       Example of religious space in kit

Maison Carré

·       Nimes, France, 20 BCE, Imperial Roman

·       Engaged column: column joined into the fabric of the surrounding wall, half protrudes from wall

·       Has pediment, podium, portico

·       Most Roman temples are:

·       Rectilinear in plan

·       Gabled roofs with pediments at ends, over a front portico

·       Use of classical orders

·       Altar is public and outside of the temple, often set in or next to the stairs

·       Cella is for cult statues; more restricted access

·       Has engaged columns instead of Greek peripteral

·       Has one axial entry, instead of multiple in Greek temples

·       Raised on a single, high podium, instead of Greek stepped plinths

·       Like the Greeks, Romans’ main religious acts happen at outdoor altars—all are able to participate

Colosseum (Flavian Ampitheater)—example of entertainment venue

·       Rome, Italy, 70-82 CE, Patron: Emperor Vespasian, Imperial Roman

·       An example of entertainment/sporting venue or theater that could also be used for imperial ceremony

·       Located in the heart of imperial Rome, near imperial fora and temples

·       Cavea—tired seating—was covered by retractable shades. Social and gender hierarchies, lowest level was for elites, middle for general public, upper was for women and children

·       Uses the Roman Classical Orders, starting with Tuscan, then Ionic, then Corinthian

·       Chambers at the two levels under the arena floor is known as the hypogeum—where animals, gladiators were kept

Pantheon (Example of temple)

·       Rome, Italy, 114-128 CE, patrons: Emperors Trajan and Hadrian, Imperial Roman

·       Circular shape

·       Atypical plan for Roman temple—most are rectilinear with single, axial entry

·       Has pediment, frieze, portico, second pediment, intermediate block, domed rotunda

·       Revetment—a thin layer of stone/marble used to ornament a wall’s subsurface—the Pantheon would have had that

·       Geometric and structural sophistication

·       Spherical form in a square

·       Walls of concrete with brick facing; relieving arches (arches baked into the wall) are set within the thickness of the walls

·       Upper levels of dome are made of concrete mixed with scoria, a lightweight volcanic rock

·       Varietas: Latin for variety—Roman affection for varied textures, colors and forms in one building or interior design

·       Oculus admitting light of sun and moon; references the heavens under which the emperor rules

·       Oculus: a circular opening in a dome/wall—the Pantheon’s oculus is completely open

·       Coffer—recessed panel in a ceiling, for decorative and/or structural purposes (lightening the weight of a ceiling)

·       Polychrome: using of many different colors—multiple colors used in the marble flooring

·       Flooring has patterns of circular insets within squares

·       Alteration of rectilinear and rounded niches/pediments

·       Inscription on entablature identifies Agrippa as the patron—“Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, thrice Consul, built this”

·       Not entirely true—architectural and archaeological evidence proves the building standing here was built in 110-20s, not 1^st century BCE

·       Inscription refers to an earlier circular building on the same site, likely used as an audience hall by emperor Augustus. Trajanic-Hadrianic Pantheon of 2^nd century CE was likely also used as an audience hall for the emperor, and also housed statues of earlier emperors to whom the reigning emperor would be linked

·       Built on the site of an earlier temple in the form of a rotunda. First Pantheon was made by Consul Agrippa, to honor his and first Roman emperor Augusuts’ victory at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE—gained control of Egypt

·       While it featured statues of many gods, the Pantheon first likely functioned as an imperial audience hall, with the emperor seated near the main apse opposite the entry. Later, it became a dynastic sanctuary, honoring Roman emperors, who became gods after they died

·       Julius Caesar and Augustus became gods

·       By 2^nd century CE, the Pantheon was associated with the emperors and their divine authority

·       Dome was a metaphorical canopy of the heavens under which the emperor ruled divinely

Forum of Trajan (example of forum)

Rome, Italy, 98-117 CE, Patron: Emperor Trajan, Architect: Apollodorus of Damascus, Imperial Roman

Basilica Ulpia (in Forum of Trajan)—example of basilica

·       A colonnaded hall with a longitudinal axis, usually with an apse on at least one side

·       Apse: semi circular termination of a building

·       Nave: central, wide space in a basilica

·       Aisles: divided from the nave by a colonnade

·       Altar at apses—usually a large statue of the reigning emperor on altar

·       Served as a law court

·       Tiers of seats in the apses

·       part of the roman kit

Column of Trajan (example of commemorative monument)

·       Rome, Italy, 113 CE, Patron: Emperor Trajan, Imperial Roman

·       Victory of Trajan over Dacia

·       Scrolling band of images—depiction of Trajan’s armies moving across Adriatic Sea to modern day Croatia

·       Sea battles and land battles

·       Victory at top

·       There would have been a statue of the emperor at the top

·       Libraries on two sides, adjacent to basilica

Markets of Trajan (example of market)

·       Rome, Italy, 98-117 CE

·       Made of brick and concrete in attempt to generate even more revenue in a time of economic success

·       Double heighted nave

·       Groin vaults

·       Shops arranged on two levels, homes built above shops

Temple of Trajan (example of temple)

·       Dedicated to Trajan after his death since he became a god

Baths of Caracalla

Rome, Italy, 212-216 CE, patron: Emperor Caracalla, imperial Roman

·       Example of a bath complex

·       Has washing facilities, athletic facilities, gardens

·       Leisure and social activities

·       Decorated of mosaics of people exercising

·       Gymnasiums on both sides

·       Natatio for exercise swimming

·       Great hall for communing space—groin vaults for ceiling

·       Frigidarium—cold bath

·       Tepidarium—warm bath

·       Caldarium—hot bath

·       Imperial scale baths are enormous—separated for men and women

·       Large copies of Greek sculptures

·       Hypocaust: under-floor heating system used in caldarium and tepidarium

·       Floor stands on short columns, steam is piped through the hypocaust, heat rises through the floor of the bath

·       Smaller neighborhood baths had separate hours for men and women

The Mausoleum of Emperor Augustus

·       1^st century CE, Imperial Roman

·       Mausoleum, large tomb structures

·       Centralized plan type; commonly used for burials of honored figures in both Greece and Rome, as well as prehistoric period

·       Another linkage to Pantheon and Augustus

Emperor Constantine

·       Rome divided into East and West empires, ruled by tetrarchs—4 co rulers of Roman Empire in late 3^rd-4^th century; Constantine was junior ruler in western half until he conquered it all

Arch of Constantine

Rome, Italy, 315 CE, Late Antique

·       When Constantine comes into power, the Senate grants him a triumphal arch

·       Attic story of his triumphal arch says that the Roman Senate gives this to Constantine to honor his victory at Milvian Bridge

·       Arch is close to colosseum, also at the end of a long street between Palatino and Celio hills

·       Triumphal Procession went through this area, that honored the emperor and general’s victories

·       Constantine was not born into imperial family, from German city of Trier, worked his way up military, conquers senior partner Maxentius in order to become emperor—legitimized himself

·       Spolia: reused architectural materials, sometimes used as trophies, sometimes for economic reasons

·       His arch used spolia from the “Good Emperors”—Trajan, Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius, Constantine—makes comparison between himself and good emperors

·       Constantine’s sculptures on the arch are lower to the ground—people passing by can see his panels better

·       Images of Constantine talking from rostrum in Forum Romanum, speaking to people

·       People can see themselves on the architecture, with the emperor relating to them

·       Use of spolia was illegal forbidden before Constantine—says its alright only for him

·       Heads of past emperors recarved into Constantine’s image

Domus

·       house: looked inward, tightly organized around colonnaded courts

·       Street façade often had shops to either side of entry, second story dwelling for shopkeepers

·       Interior atrium served as stage for extended family and clients

·       Atrium court—impluvium: rimmed with inward sloping roofs that funneled rain water to a catch basin at center

·       Niches along walls of atrium contained shrines for household gods and portrait busts of owner and ancestors

·       Owner’s office—tablinum: stood on axis with entry and opened its back side to second peristyle garden court

·       Only wealthy could afford domus type in Rome

·       Rear court in domus was feminine zone—kitchens, triclinium dining rooms, baths, privies

Insula

·       multilevel apartment block—developed spontaneously from shops with attic room to several stories of apartments over ground-level taberna

·       For underclass

·       Made of mud bricks or half-timber construction

·       Wooden floors, stairs, ceilings

·       No cooking facilities, privies, highly flammable, subject to collapse, overcrowded

·       State attempted to regulate heights and construction methods, especially after Rome’s Great Fire of 64 CE

·       Early 2^nd century CE, port city of Ostia had exemplary insulae—blocks of fireproof, brick-faced concrete set on wide streets—4 stories, rationally divided

·       Insula of Diana, Ostia, Italy, 150 CE

·       Many insulae found at Pompeii

·       Ground floor is a little taller

·       Mezzanine level for merchants to store their goods

·       3 floors of apartments above

·       No kitchen fires, toilet, or bath in the apartments, public facilities used

Pompeii

·       Italy, part of the empire from 80 BCE until its destruction by the eruption of the Vesuvius volcano in 79 CE, Imperial Roman

·       Eruption froze Pompeii in time, rediscovered in 18^th century

·       Uses Roman orthogonal grid

·       Has forums, arenas, amphitheaters, all parts of Roman kit

Peristyle house

·       residence organized around an open courtyard or garden surrounded by a colonnade, with rooms off of this; can have several such interior courtyards

·       Made of brick

·       Have atrium, front, more public space, the peristyle, the rear—more private/familial space around a garden courtyard

·       Not many windows on street façade

·       Atrium, cubicula, pool, were more public spaces

·       Rear has more cubicula, peristyle courtyard, dining room (triclinium)

·       Wall paintings would have lined the walls of the peristyle—as seen in House of the Silver Faun