modern youth exam 1

adolescence

Developmental period between childhood and adulthood

• Early 

  • 11-14

  • Onset of puberty

• Middle 

  • 15-17

• Late  

  • +18

creation of the developmental stage of emerging adulthood

• Phase in development for Western world but not common in every culture 

• Delay in shifting into adulthood 

  • Tied to change in time where individuals take on additional responsibility 

pros and cons of technology (internet and cellphones) with regard to adolescents

• Internet 

  • Pros 

    • Ways to meet people

    • Share ideas

    • Look for date, jobs, shop

    • Information resources readily available 

  • Cons 

    • Inappropriate material easy to access 

      • Ex. alt right pipelines 

    • Anonymous communication 

    • Can lead to feeling lost in anon account

    • Ease of spreading misinformation 

• Smartphones

  • Pros

    • increased connectedness

  • cons

    • dependence

differences in the family system and how do they affect adolescents

Age, cohabitation, family size, out-of-wedlock, divorce- people are marrying older and nonmarried couples are more likely to cohabitate, families are having less children, higher divorce rates, children are less likely to be "submissive," contraceptives

• Romantic love is more prioritized than economic prosperity, leads to frustration when this is not found

• Adolescents from smaller families have advantages, more

• attention is given to each child, more likely to have access to higher ed, but also have fewer siblings to interact with

• Democratic family leads to more rebellion

• Cohabitation children more likely to cohabit themselves

• Out of wedlock: Economic strain, school suspension, stress/anxiety due to instability, higher teen pregnancy rates

• Divorce: Intense emotions, guilt, acting out, withdrawal, commitment fears more stability in later age marriage but typically larger generational gap

Describe the pros and cons associated with the sexual revolution and adolescents

• Pros 

  • Acceptance of sexual desire 

  • Scientific knowledge 

  • Contraceptives 

  • Flexibility in gender roles 

• Cons 

  • Age of initial intercourse 

    • Can impact young mental health 

  • Pregnancy 

    • Teens 

  • STDs

  • Confusion about sex 

    • Connected with anxiety

advantages and disadvantages of correlational research and experimental research

• advantages

  • described relationships through manipulations

• cons

  • cannot generalize findings

four different explanations for correlation relationship

• A effects B

• B effects A

• A and B effect each other Bidirectionally

• C is effecting A and B, third variable

difference between cross-sectional, longitudinal, and sequential design

• Cross-sectional 

  • Compares multiple groups at one time point

  • Pro- easy to test

  • Con- cohort effects 

• Longitudinal

  • Follows one group across time

  • Pro- temporal sequence 

  • Con- attrition rate, testing effect

• Sequential 

  • Hybrid of cross and long 

  • Pro- eliminates cons of both prev designs 

  • Cons- time consuming & expensive 

Stanley Hall and Gesells’ biological perspective on adolescence

• Hall (1904)

  • Period= Storm and Stress

    • Genetically based changes

  • Emotional seesaw

• Geesell (1956)

  • Genes determine order of appearance of behavior traits 

  • Gradual and spiral growth 

    • Highlights factors appearing and disappearing 

• Criticisms 

  • Hall- Negative view of Adolescence 

  • Geeselle- limited, homo-genetic sample

Piaget’s cognitive viewpoint as it relates to adolescence

• Sensorimotor 

  • Learn to coordinate bodily movements

  • Rely on senses

• Preoperational 

  • Acquire language, learn to use symbols 

  • Lack logical thought 

• Concrete Operational 

  • Logical reasoning 

  • Understand mental operations 

• Formal Operations 

  • Reached within adolescents 

  • Develop abstract thought 

  • Hypothetical thinking 

  • Inductive reasoning

psychoanalytic perspective on adolescence

• Sigmund Freud View

  • =Anxious and moody 

  • Psychosexual stages → Id shifting desires to different areas 

    • Oral

      • Child’s chief source of pleasure and satisfaction comes from oral activity 

    • Anal

      • Child’s chief source of pleasure and satisfaction comes from anal activity and elimination of waste

    • Phalic

      • Genetal area is chief source of pleasure and satisfaction 

      • Oedipal Complex

        • Problem 

          • Boys become jealous of the attention given to their fathers by their mothers 

          • → Castration anxiety = fear father will hurt them because seen as competition 

        • Identification 

          • Identifying with father reduces castration anxiety through imitation 

          • Learn how to behave and be a man enabling to find wife once matured

      • Electra complex

        • Problem 

          • Girls become jealous of boys and thus develop penis envy

            • Since penis = male and male = strength

          • Girls view mother as competition for father’s affection 

            • Also blames mom for not having penis 

        • Identification 

    • Latency 

      • Sexual interests remain hidden while the child concentrates on schooling and making friends 

    • Genital 

      • Reemergence of sexual desires resulting in seeking romantic relations to relieve sexual tension 

• Anna Freud View

  • Period of Internal Conflict 

  • Battling internal conflicts of sides of themselves 

    • Egotistic 

    • Rebellious 

    • Pessimistic 

    • Optimistic 

    • Respect 

    • Selfless 

  • → Creates storm and stress

  • Drive to satisfy desires increases and creates conflict with rational side 

    • id= desires 

    • ego= trying to mediate desires

    • Battle of id and → erratic behavior 

    • superego= conscious, moral standard of personality

psychosocial perspective on adolescence

• Erikson

• Positive Ego Identity  Stage theory resolvement 

  • Trust vs Mistrust 

    • Infants 

    • Outcome= trust in caregiver 

  • Autonomy vs Shame

    • Toddlers

    • Outcome= assert will

  • Initiative vs Guilt

    • Preschoolers

    • Outcome= instigate own plans; curiosity

  • Industry vs Inferiority 

    • Grade school

    • Outcome= master social and academic skills

  • Identity vs Role Confusion

    • Adolescents 

    • Outcome= understanding who you are

  • Intimacy vs Isolation

    • Young adults 

    • Outcome== develop close and meaningful relationships 

  • Generativity vs Stagnation

    • Middle aged adults

    • Outcome= deciding legacy

  • Integrity vs Despair 

    • Elderly 

    • Outcome= acceptance of mortality 

• → Failure to resolve leads to issues in future stages

social learning theory perspective of Bandura and how it relates to adolescent development

• Social Learning Theory 

  • Children learn through perceiving behavior of others and modeling such behaviors 

  • Aspects 

    • Rewards

      • Enhances likelihood of behavior 

    • Punishment

      • Diminishes likelihood of behavior 

    • Reinforcement 

      • Vicarious reinforcement 

        • Learning from observing others behaviors 

        • Learn about negative and positive consequences 

      • Self-reinforcement

        • Act of learners rewarding themselves for activities 

        • Occur once perceive something to be of good quality 

  • Ex. Banduras Dolls → Learning aggressive behaviors 

Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological model as it relates to adolescence

• Culture context importance 

  • Adolescents develop within multiple contexts within families, communities, and countries 

• Nested systems 

  • Social influences on self include serious of interconnected systems 

• Ecological Model of Social Influences 

  • Microsystem

    • Persons within immediate contact  

  • Mesosystem

    • Reciprocal relationships within microsystems 

    • Ex. school, family, church interconnect for individual 

  • Exosystem

    • Indirect relation

    • Do not play active role however has impact on adolescent 

  • Macrosystem 

    • Attitudes, beliefs, norms of culture, educational, social, and political values held 

    • Indirect influence 

      • Influences other systems which will then influence individual

Describe the limitations associated with being within low socioeconomic status

• Fewer opportunities 

• Hinder edu attainment 

• Helplessness and powerlessness 

• Deprivation

• Exposure to violence 

cycle of poverty and what could be done to break the cycle

• cycle

  • Low level of edu ->

    • High school dropouts, low edu expectations, lack of resources

  • Low level of income ->

    • Minimum wage or low paying jobs 

  • Low level of living ->

    • Homeless, low cost-housing, decline in gov aid

  • Deprivation and powerlessness ->

    • Unable to control environment 

  • Socialization of youth ->

    • Aspire to just get by rather than overcoming situation

• breaking the cycle

  • Resiliency= Ability to adapt and bounce back from challenges

  • Strength tied to coping strategies and resources available

  • Changing thought patterns 

    • Perspective 

      • Adopt more balanced and realistic thinking patterns 

      • Identify irrational thoughts and adopt them to be more rational 

    • Accept change 

      • Accepting circumstances helps focus on situations you can alter

    • Outlook

      • Optimistic outlook empowers you to expect good things will happen

parent-child of adolescents within low SES

• One parent

• Strict parenting

  • Stress of parents can impact relationship with child

    • Less warm, nurturing, and involved 

    • Adolescents see parents as closed off, strained relationship 

peer relationships of adolescents within low SES

• Peer group

  • Weakened ties with parents leads to stronger attachment to friends 

  • More peer-oriented 

• Social outcasts 

  • Prejudicial treatment from peers and teachers 

  • Based on how dress, speak, behave can become ostracized

factors related to discrimination and family life that affect African American adolescents

• Discrimination 

  • History 

    • In US, mostly descendants of enslaved people

    • Forced to assume inferior role in society

  • Segregation

    • Disparity between income, edu, and standard of living 

    • Many neighborhoods still are

  • Unequal education

    • Achievement gap

    • High school grad rates

    • Connection to econ status 

• Family life

  • Strong kinship

    • Strong bonds through extended family 

    • Adoptable roles leading to equal partnership 

  • Religion

    • Source of comfort and strength 

    • Binds families and communities

health and education factors that affect Latino adolescents

• Education 

  • Less likely to graduate from high school

  • Disadvantage with English as second language 

  • Lack financial assistance to seek higher edu

• Health 

  • High rates of asthma, diabetes, and HIV

    • HIV may be tied lack of use of contraceptives due to religious reasons 

    • Diabetes may be related to diet 

  • Lack medical coverage 

family and education factors that affect Asian Americans

• Chinese Americas 

  • Family

    • Lower rates of divorce mental illness, public assistance

    • Conservative attitudes in role of women and sexual values

  • Education 

    • Stress importance of edu and hard work 

    • Outscore all other ethnic groups in standardized tests

model minority stereotype and what effects may it have on Asian American adolescents

• Others assume you naturally excel and do not need additional help

• Leads to feelings of inadequacies 

resiliency and explain the individual, family and community characteristics that may help one be resilient

• Ability to adapt and bounce back from challenges 

• Factors that play role

  • Individual level

    • ex. Personality; being assertive 

  • Family

    • ex. Support

  • Community 

    • ex. Network in community may help

biochemical changes associated with puberty

• Hypothalmus 

  • Small area of forebrain 

  • Motivational and emotional control center 

  • Major role in hormonal prosecution and regulation 

• Pituitary Gland 

  • Small gland located in brain

  • Aka Master gland

  • Produces growth hormone and controls some other glands

• Sex glands

  • Secretes sex hormones 

    • Ovaries → estrogen and progesterone

    • Testes → androgens and testosterone 

  • Stimulates development of secondary sex characteristics

maturation and functions of male sex organs

• Sex Hormone Regulation

  • Hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland 

    • Triggered by GnRH

  • Pituitary gland secretes FSH and LH

    • Growth hormones influence sperm and testosterone levels 

  • Starts sperm growth in testes 

    • Spermatogensis 

  • Level of testosterone kept constant 

    • Negative feedback loop

• Functions of sex organs 

  • Primary sexual characteristics

    • Male reproductive system  

    • Penis, scrotum, urethra 

maturation and functions of female sex organs

• Sex Hormone Regulation 

  • Varies depending on where female is in period cycle

  • Hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland 

    • Triggered by GnRH

  • Pituitary gland secretes FSH and LH

    • Growth hormones influence ova and estrogen levels 

  • Starts follicles and egg cells in ovaries 

  • Level of estrogen kept constant 

    • Negative feedback loop

• Functions of sex organs 

  • Primary sexual characteristics 

    • Vagina 

    • Uterus 

    • Fallopian tube 

secondary sexual characteristics for males

• Hair

  • Grows more

• Height

• Voice change

  • Deepens 

• Muscle development 

  • Broader shoulders, etc.

secondary sexual characteristics for females

• Hips 

  • Broaden 

• Hair 

  • Grows more 

• Breasts

• Height 

• Slight voice deepen

determinants of height

• Heredity

• Nutrition 

• Age sexual maturation started 

  • Those who mature later tend to be taller

  • Longer it takes for sexual maturation, more time for pituitary gland to release growth hormone 

different body types

• Research shows most people are a blend of body types

• Ectomorph 

  • Tall, slender body build

  • Bony and long-limbed

• Mesomorph

  • Medium, athletic body build

  • Middle of ecto and endo 

• Endomorph

  • Short, heavy body build

  • Soft and sphere-shaped

effects of early vs late maturation for boys and for girls

• Males 

  • Early

    • Athletic advantage 

    • Social acceptance and competence 

    • Risky behaviors such as alcohol use and smoking 

  • Late

    • Body dissatisfaction 

    • Social rejection 

    • Risk for high delinquency rates 

• Females 

  • Early

    • May socialize with older peer groups → Increased risk of engaging in delinquent behavior 

    • Internalizing disorders; anxiety or depression 

  • Late 

    • Envy

    • Temporary loss of social status 

    • Advantage in better academics 

health concerns of adolescents as it relates to sleep, nutrition and physical activity

• Sleep concerns

  • Negative effects of lacking sleep

    • Tired, depressed, inattentive, impaired memory, stressed

  • Adolescents need more sleep than preteens 

    • Under more pressure and socialize in late hours 

  • Biologicals reasons

    • Peak secretion of melatonin 

• Nutrition concerns

  • Skip breakfast

    • Prefer to sleep in

  • Unhealthy snacking 

    • Rely on snacks lacking nutritional value 

  • Social pressures 

    • To follow controversial diets 

  • Troubled relationships 

    • Broken or troubled home

    • → Emotional problems 

  • Lack knowledge 

• Physical activity concerns 

  • Working out tends to become a fad 

  • Adolescents report no physical or exercise at all

  • Benefits of getting active 

    • Build physical fitness to maintain healthy weight 

    • Promotes psychology and mental health 

    • Patterns developed during adolescence continue to adulthood 

  • Risk for Obesity 

    • Personal factors

      • Genetics

      • Motivation 

        • What drives you to eat

      • Food intake

      • Lack of exercise 

    • Can lead to costly health disorders 

    • Interpersonal factors 

      • Parents

        • Habits and attitudes modeled

      • Peers

        • Behavioral norms

      • Schools 

        • Policies on food, PE

contributing factors to eating disorders as well as obesity in adolescents

• Individual factors 

  • History

    • Dieting, anxiety disorder

  • Mental state

    • Perfectionism 

  • Body image

    • Dissatisfaction in social comparisons 

  • Behavior

    • Inflexibility 

• Interpersonal factors 

  • Parents 

    • Habits, attitudes 

  • Peers

    • Behavioral norms, bullying 

  • Society

    • Weight stigma 

• Sports as a risk factor

What factors affect the health decisions of adolescents?

• parents

  • dieting, habits

• school

  • food available, PE policies

stages of cognitive development according to Piaget

• Sensorimotor 

  • Birth - 2 years

  • Mastering sensory-motor sequences 

  • Gaining control over body

• Preoperational 

  • 2 - 7 years

  • Egocentrentic 

  • Emergence of symbolic thought 

  • Emergence of language 

  • Limited in understanding property of objects

• Concrete operational

  • 7 - 11 years

  • Logical reasoning

    • Able to do mental processes to come up with solutions

  • Hierarchical classifications 

    • Ability to divide objects into nested series of categories 

    • 
      

  • Class inclusion

    • Understanding that objects may fit into different levels of hierarchies 

    • 
      

      • Able to understand there’s more cats than dogs

      • Able to understand there’s more animals than cats 

        • Pre-operational would struggle here 

  • Conservation 

    • Understanding that changing an object’s appearance does not alter its fundamental properties 

    • 
      

      • Knows if liquid back in A it would be same level as before 

• Formal operation 

  • 11 and up

  • Abstract though 

  • Hypothetical reasoning 

  • Inductive reasoning

    • Gathering individual items of information putting together to form conclusions 

    • Observations -> Conclusions

      • Developing theory

    • 
      

  • Deductive reasoning 

    • Making inferences based on factual information available 

    • Facts -> Conclusion

      • Testing theory 

    • 
      

  • Hypothetical-deductive reasoning 

    • Ability to solve problems using scientific method

criticism of Piaget’s view on cognitive development

• Age 

  • Question the age at which formal operation begins 

  • Social environment may change speed of progression 

• Universality 

  • Attainment of first 3 stages seem to be universal 

  • However, full formal thinking not guaranteed 

• Beyond Formal Operations 

  • Unsure if actually final stage of cognitive development

adolescent egocentrism

• Child 

  • Children have difficulty understanding why someone can’t see what they see

  • Cannot place self in other peoples perspective 

• Adolescent 

  • Become very self-conscious and introspective 

  • Very concerned with self and feeling as if always on stage 

• Elkind’s Adolescent Egocentrism (1967)

  • Personal fable 

    • Adolescent believes self is invulnerable

    • Feel more special and unique 

    • ex. Believe parents could not understand what going through since first to go through 

  • Imaginary audience 

    • Belief others are constantly paying attention to them

    • Feel important to other people

    • ex. Spilled coffee on self and get self-conscious, believes everyone watching 

steps in processing information

• Attention

  • Stimuli focused

  • Ignore irrelevant information

• Interpretation 

  • Make judgement about what being exposed to 

• Memory 

  • Retain useful information

• Inference

  • Generate new thoughts from old information 

• Thinking

  • Conscious, deliberate coordination of info

• Reasoning

  • Logical constrained useful thinking

• -> Action

• Not always a simple process; may stop or take steps back

  • Varies based on what being processed

three types of memory

• Sensory register

  • Holds sensory info

  • Lasts for seconds

• Short-term memory

  • Limited storage

  • Contains info being rehearsed or on conscious mind

  • Aka working memory 

• Long-term memory

  • Unlimited storage 

  • Info that is held below conscious level

  • Improves with age 

  • Knows is stored if able to retrieved

    • May be retrieved through recall or reminders 

• Sensory → Short-term → Long-term

  • Can be forgotten at each stage and therefore not progress to the next 

psychometric approach to intelligence

• Achievement tests 

  • Designed to assess mastery of specific subject matter or skills

  • May be used to examine how much knowledge taken in during a course 

factors that may affect test results

• Mental state

• Cultural bias 

• Genes and environment

Gardner’s perspective on intelligence

• Linguistic: argue, persuade, entertainment

• Logical-mathematical: think in terms of cause-effect

• Musical: sing in tune, keep in time

• Spatial: Orient easily in 3D space

• Bodily-kinestics: tactile sensitivity 

• Interpersonal: perceptive and responds to moods of others 

• Intrapersonal: discriminate different emotional states

• Naturalistic: observe and construct meaning from nature