memory

Bottom-Up Processing

Processing information by starting with sensory input.

Top-Down Processing

Processing information using prior knowledge, experiences, and expectations.

Schemas

Mental frameworks that organize information and knowledge.

Perceptual Set

A tendency to perceive things based on expectations and experiences.

Cocktail Party Effect

The ability to focus on one conversation while noticing important information from others.

Change Blindness

Failing to notice changes in the environment.

Inattentional Blindness

Failing to notice something because attention is focused elsewhere.

Gestalt Psychology

The idea that people perceive organized wholes rather than separate parts.

Selective Attention

Focusing on certain information while ignoring other information.

Linear Perspective

A depth cue in which parallel lines appear to meet in the distance.

Closure (Perceptual Closure)

Filling in missing parts of an image to perceive a complete object.

Color Constancy

Perceiving an object's color as relatively constant under different lighting conditions.

Prototype

A mental example of the most typical member of a category.

Assimilation

Fitting new information into an existing schema.

Accommodation

Changing or creating a schema to fit new information.

Algorithm

A step-by-step method for solving a problem.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts used to make decisions quickly.

Stereotypes

Generalized beliefs about a group of people.

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging something based on how closely it matches a typical example.

Availability Heuristic

Judging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind.

Priming

When exposure to one stimulus influences a response to a later stimulus.

Framing

The way information is presented influences decisions.

Gambler's Fallacy

Believing past random events affect the outcome of future independent events.

Sunk Cost Fallacy

Continuing something because of resources already invested, even when stopping may be better.

Divergent Thinking

Generating many possible ideas or solutions.

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing choices to find one best answer.

Functional Fixedness

Difficulty seeing new uses for familiar objects.

Explicit Memory

Conscious memory of facts and experiences.

Implicit Memory

Memory that influences behavior without conscious awareness.

Episodic Memory

Memory of personal experiences and events.

Semantic Memory

Memory of facts and general knowledge.

Procedural Memory

Memory of skills and how to perform actions.

Prospective Memory

Remembering to do something in the future.

Phonological Loop

The part of working memory that temporarily holds and rehearses verbal information.

Sensory Memory

The brief storage of information received through the senses.

Iconic Memory

Brief visual sensory memory.

Echoic Memory

Brief auditory sensory memory.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

The part of working memory that temporarily holds visual and spatial information.

Working Memory

Temporarily holding and manipulating information.

Long-Term Memory

The relatively lasting storage of information.

Automatic Processing

Encoding information with little conscious effort.

Effortful Processing

Encoding information through conscious effort and attention.

Encoding

Getting information into memory.

Storage

Retaining information in memory over time.

Retrieval

Getting stored information back out of memory.

Mnemonic Devices

Techniques that help improve memory.

Method of Loci

A memory technique that connects information to familiar locations.

Chunking

Grouping information into meaningful units.

Massed Practice

Studying information in one long session.

Distributed Practice

Spreading studying over multiple sessions.

Serial Position Effect

Remembering items at the beginning and end of a list better than those in the middle.

Primacy Effect

Better memory for items at the beginning of a list.

Recency Effect

Better memory for items at the end of a list.

Spacing Effect

Better retention when studying is spread out over time.

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of memories formed before an injury or event.

Anterograde Amnesia

Difficulty forming new long-term memories after an injury or event.