Critical Thinking Midterm

Denying the Antecedent

A-->B

-A

Therefore, -B

If Louise is running, then she is moving.

Louise is not running.

Therefore, she is not moving.

Affirming the Consequent

A->B

B

Therefore, A

If Louise is running, then she is moving.

Louise is moving.

Therefore, she is running.

The Undistributed Middle Term (Guilt by Association)

The middle term is NOT distributed at least once

Several Nazis were members of the Kaiser Club.

Hans was a member of the Kaiser Club.

Therefore, Hans was a Nazi

Equivocation

The deliberately employ words with multiple meanings for the purpose of deception

Fans make a lot of noise.

Madame Butterfly was using her fan.

Therefore, she was making a lot of noise.

Begging the Question

The very point that has to be proved to be true is simply assumed to be true.

All the people at the table had their heads shaved.

Jim was at the table.

Therefore, Jim had his head shaved.

False Assumption

To assume something is true is to take it to be true without being positively certain it is

I drank bottled water

I am now sick

therefore, the bottled water made me sick

The Straw-Man Fallacy

A deliberate distortion of an argument as to weaken it

“I prefer dogs over cats” “So you hate cats.”

Using and Abusing Tradition

The mere fact that "things have always been done that way" is not in and of itself a compelling reason for keeping on doing them that way.

"People have been using leeches in medicine for centuries so it must work”

Two wrongs don't make a right

"It is all right to do X because Y has already been done”

“I hit James because he hit me first”

Ad Hominem Fallacy

When the argument is ignored and the person responsible for the argument is deliberately attacked.

“The cost of living is too high” “You are only saying that because you are broke”

Substituting for the Force of Reason

The alternative to moving people by force of reason is doing so by raw power.

“Why do I have the clean my room?” “Because if you don’t you’re going to get a spanking”

The Uses and Abuses of Expertise

The argument, not just the word of the experts, which should be carrying the authoritative weight

Professor Smith, John, and Doe say the Acme program is good

Therefore, we should adopt the Acme Program

An Inability to Disprove Does Not Prove

The fact that there is no concrete proof against a position
does not constitute an argument in favor of the position.

Dr. Willing: We are not alone in the universe. I maintain
that there is intelligent life out there in the vast
reaches of space.
Dr. Able: Do you have proof of this?
Dr. Willing: I don't. But can you prove there is not life in
outer space?
Dr. Able: No, I cannot.
Dr. Willing: Aha! That proves I am right.

Consider More Than the Source

Knowing a source to be generally bad, you assume that everything coming from that source must necessarily be bad.

“You can’t trust him, he comes from a family of thieves”

Stopping Short at Analysis *

But analysis is only productive if it is complemented by synthesis. It is not enough to take things apart; we have to put them back together again.

Reductionism

When we selectively focus on only some of the parts of a composed whole.

The human body is just a bunch of chemicals

Misclassification

We misclassify things because we fail to properly identify them in the first place, and we do that because we are not paying attention.

Cutting people with knives is a violent crime

Surgeons cut people with knives

Therefore surgeons are criminals

The Red Herring

It introduces emotionally volatile information which is deliberately calculated to agitate a specific audience.

“why are you pulling me over officer, you should be worried about the real criminals? Someone could be robbing a bank.”

Laughter as Diversionary Tactic

When you are unable to come up with a reasoned response to an argument, we try to dodge it by pretending that it is not worth taking seriously.

Example:
“Why were you late to class?”
“You should’ve seen my hair this morning!”

Tears as Diversionary Tactic

deliberately obscuring issues through the cynical manipulation of emotion.

“Please don’t give me a ticket, I am already struggling to pay rent and this ticket will ruin my life