Terminology and devices

Narrative prose

The telling of a sequence of connected events, by some kind of narrator.

Narrative voice

The perspective and distinctive style through which a story is told, encompassing the narrator’s personality, tone, and level of knowledge, which significantly influences how a reader interprets the events, characters, and themes of a text.

Narrative point of view

The most common type of narrative voice . It is the visual perspective from which the story is presented.

Plot/story

The basic events or actions of the narrative, given in the chronological order in which they are supposed to have happened, with the circumstances surrounding them.

Narration

The techniques and devices used for telling the story.

Omniscient narrator

The narrator knows all things. There are two types: intrusive and unintrusive.

Intrusive/unintrusive narration

The intrusive narrator explicitly comments on events and characters. The unintrusive narrator tells the story from a distance withut the reader being aware that the narrator is making judgements or voicing opinions.

External/internal/ narration

Third-person external narration describes events, characters , and so on, as they are observed from the outside. Third-person internal narration describes these from the inside as if the narrator is able to see into the minds of the characters and tell the reader about how the character thinks and feels. 

Restricted/unrestricted

This is the degree to which the narrator is restricted or unrestricted on the knowledge they possess concerning the characters and events. Limitations might be signalled by phrases such as “it seemed/appeared/looked as if”.

Interior monologues

These appear in both first-person and third-person narration. Passages of interior monologue allow the writer to see how a character’s thoughts are developing.

Stream of consciousness

A passage where thoughts are written randomly, as if the thoughts are spilling onto the page. Theymay appear unstructured, unpunctuated and/or chaotic.

Register

The variation in language according the way in which it is being used. E.g. the level of jargon used or the level of formal language used. The three key areas are the mode (spoken or written), the manner (level of formality depending on the relationship between the writer and the audience) and the field (the way the words used are linked to the subject matter being dealt with).

Lexis (or diction)

This is the vocabulary used in the written text. The manner in which the words relate to each other is important for understanding and appreciating the text. Features may include nouns, verbs and modifiers amongst others.

Abstract nouns

These focus on describing states of mind, concepts, ideas, etc.

Concrete nouns

These are used to describe solid events, characters, etc.

Proper nouns

These are used to establish characters, places, etc.

Stative verbs

These may indicate a writer’s interest in describing states of mind, setting etc. e.g. know, believe, hate, want, belong

Dynamic verbs

These place emphasis on what is currently happening

Modifiers

Such as adverbs and adjectives provide added detail in order to influnce the reader’s perceptions. They can add positive and negative connonations which may shape a reader’s response.

Monologue

The speech used by a character when speaking alone.

Dialogue

Speech involving two or more characters.

Direct speech

This speech presents the reader with a direct copy of the words spoken. The words are enclosed within quotation marks and accompanied by a reporting clause such as “he shouted/said/called/demanded”.

Indirect speech 

The words are reported in such a way that the material is from the narrator’s perspective rather than the speaker. E.g. He said that he was afraid that she would get cold. He told her to creep close to him.

Free direct speech

This is direct speech where the perspective of the narrator is minimized.e.g the reporting clause is only used occasionally but the quotation marks often remain. E.g. He laid down his bundle. A writer might choose to remove the quotation words for extra effect or merge direct and free direct speech together.

Free indirect speech 

This is speech where the main reporting clause is missed out but the tense and pronoun selection are those associated with indirect speech. This is to blur the distinction between a character’s speech and the narrative voice. E.g.: He laid down his bundle and thought of his misfortune. And just what pleasure had he found, since he came into this world?

Syntax

The study of the structure of sentences.

Simple sentences

Sentences which have one main clause (one subject and one verb). May be used to give a sense of action, speeding up, or a sense of breathlessness. A.o.

Compound sentences

Sentences which have two (or more) main clauses e.g. two subjects and two verns which are linked by co

Complex sentences

These are sentences with two or more clauses but the clauses are linked by subordination using words such as because, when, although. This often signifies a fairly sophisticated style. May be used to create a contemplative, philosophical mood. A.o.

Functions: Declarative

The making of statements e.g. in order to create a sense of drama

Interrogative

The asking of questions e.g in order to probe for answers

Imperative

The issuing of commands e.g. in order to create a critical, or off

Exclamatory

Ending in an exclamation mark expressing strong emotion e.g. in order to heighen the drama, express shock or communicate surprise.

Stylistic Device

A broad term for a technique used to create a specific effect, such as imagery, emphasis, or clarity. Simile, metaphor, alliteration, and anaphora are all stylistic devices.

Simile

A comparison of one thing with another to make a description more vivid. It uses like or as to make the comparison. Eg. The wind cuts through me like a knife.

Metaphor

A comparison of one thing to another in order to make a description more vivid. It states that one thing is the other. E.g. The wind is a knife; it cuts through me.

Personification

The attribution of human feelings, emotions, sensations or physical attributes to an inanimate object. i.e. Human qualities are given to things or abstract ideas. E.g. the gossip ran around the room

Onomatopoeia

The use of words whose sounds copy the sounds of the thing or process they describe. E.g. bang, splash, hiss.

Alliteration

The repetition of the same consonant sound, especially at the beginning of words. E.g. The snake slithered slowly through the grass.

Assonance

The repetition of similar vowel sounds. E.g. Clap your hands, and stamp your feet. 

Symbolism 

The use of words or phrases to represent something else e.g. a dove represents peace

Metonomy 

A feature where an attribute of the thing being described stands for the whole thing. E.g. the term crown could be used to mean the king or the queen or Hollywood could mean the film industry. 

Synecdoche 

A device in which a part is uded to represent the whole e.g. There were new faces at the meeting. 

Rhetorical Device 

A specific type of stylistic device used with the purpose of persuading the reader or listener to adopt a particular point of view. Repetition to emphasize a point is a stylistic device that also functions as a rhetorical device when used to persuade. 

Repetition

A device that emphasises an idea by using the same word  or idea again.

Apostrophe 

A speaker directly addresses someone or something that is not present or is inanimate. 

Anaphora 

A word or phrase which is intentionally repeated at the beginning of successive sentences, clauses, or lines to create emphasis, rhythm, and/or a strong emotional effect. A.o. 

Juxtaposition

The placing of two or more things side by side or in close proximity often to compare and/or contrast to create an effect. 

Antithesis 

The placing of contrasting ideas or words to create a balance. Usually, there are two groups of words with a parallel syntax (or word order) but with a contrasting or opposite meaning  e.g. to be or not to be. 

Listing 

When a series of connected items are presented one after another to create a sense of abundance, emphasize a point, or provide examples 

Parallelism

The patterning of pairs of sounds, words or structures to create a sense of balance in spoken or written text. E.g. I am the way, I am the life and I am the truth.

Hyperbole

A deliberate and extravagant exaggeration. E.g. : It weighed a million tonnes. 

Rhetorical question 

A question that does not require an answer, as the answer is obvious or implied in the question itself.

Coherence 

The way in which sentences in a piece of prose connect together in a meaningful way that the reader can interpret.

Collocations (semantic fields) 

Clusters of words that are likely to occur in the same kinds of text.e.g. Over school: teacher, book, homework, bell, assembly 

Markers of cohesion

Direction signals which help the reader to produce connections between its sentences e.g. Use of pron-nouns (he/she/it), determiners (this/that etc.), connective words and phrases signalling consequence (therefore, because of this,); ordering (firstly, finally); continuation (futhermore, then); simultaneity (meanwhile, in the meantime); concession (admittedly, yet); opposition (nevertheless, in spite of this)

Authorial intention 

What the writer is trying to achieve. These include creating a sense of character; describing a scene; creating a particular mood or atmosphere; or playing with the language. 

Manner

The formality or informality of the words the poet uses depending on the relationship the poet wishes to establish with the reader. Is the poem meant to entertain; describe; arouse emotion; tell a story; provke a thought; inform; console; celebrate; express grief a.o.? 

Tone

The tone of a poem is created through the combined effects of a number of features such as diction, syntax, rhythm etc. The tone can be a major factor in establishing the overall impression of a piece. It indicates how the poet feels and what they are experiencing. 

Mood

The mood of the poem refers to the atmosphere that the poem creates.

Form 

The way in which the poem is actually written on the page; or the way that the lines are organized or grouped. 

Stichic poetery

The technical term for poems where the lines follow on from each other continuously withot breaks. E.g. Long narrative poems.

Strophic poetry

The technical term for poems where the lines are arranged in groups.

Stanza(s)

An organised group of lines which forms part of a poem.

Rhyme scheme

The pattern of the rhymes in a poem. This is important for the effect the rhyme scheme has on the poem. It can make it sound musical and pleasing to the ear; it can create a jarring, discordant effect; it can add emphasis to certain owrds and give cerain words an added prominence.

Sonnet

A poem consisting of fourteen lines with a structured rhyme scheme and a definite rhythm pattern.

The Shakesperian (English) sonnet

The lines in this sonnet are divided into three quatrains (of four lines each) and end with a couplet (two lines). The rhyme scheme of this kind of sonnet gnerally follows the pattern of abab cdcd efef gg. The theme or idea is developed through the quatrains. Couplets (pairs of lines) that are written in iambic pentameter are known as heroic couplets.

Ballad(s)

Poems that tell a story. They were originally set to music. Thef ocus tends to be on action and dialogue. The structure normally consists of rhyming quatrains. Sometimes with dialect forms and repetition for effect.

Ode(s)

Lyricalpoems often addressed to a person or a thing or an abstract idea. Complex poems generally organized into long stanzas.Focusing on praise or philosophical ideas either positive or negative.

Free verse

Verse written without any fixed structure (either in metre, rhythm or form).

Metre

The regular use of stressed and unstressed syllables in poetry. Variations in the pattern could mark changes in mood or tone, or signify a change of direction in the movement of the poem.

Scansion

The process of identifying the metre. The syllables are divided up into groups of two or three. Each of these groups is called a foot.

Iamb

The most common metrical foot in English poetry, consisting of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable.

Iambic pentameter

A line of verse containing five feet where the first syllable is unstressed followed by a stressed syllable. E.g. Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day.

Enjambment

An instance where a verse runs from one line of a poem to another. This is due to the grammatical structure of the poem. It means that the meaning is not complete a the end of the line.

End stop

An instance where the gramatical break concieds with the end of th eline. The break is often marked by a punctuation mark, and the meaning of the line is complete in itself.

Caesura

A break or a pause in a line of verse which can be very important in influencing the rhythm of the poem.

Rhythm

The ‘movement’ of a poem as created through the metre and the way that language is stressed within the poem.

Rhyme

Corresponding sounds in words, usually at the end of each line of verse, but not always.

Complete rhyme

Where the rhyme occurs at the end of lines. E.g. tree / free or seal / feel.

Internal rhyme

Where the rhyme occurs within the line itself. E.g.: We were the first that ever burst

Eye rhymes (sight rhymes)

Where a rhyme may appear incomplete or inaccurate; the vowels may not be pronounded in the same way. E.g.: love / move or plough / rough.

Half rhymes (slant rhymes/para-rhymes) 

Where the consonant or vowel is different. E.g.: stormy / army or brambles / rumbles. 

Connotation

The associations attached to a word in addition to its dictionary definition.

Denotation

The dictionary defintion of a word.

Neologisms

A new or invented word or expression.Usually made up of adaptations of existing words.

First-person 

The “I” narrator tells of the events that he or she experiences.

Third-person 

The narrative is told from an outside perspective, using pronouns “he”, “she” or “they” to refer to characters.