physiology summer lecture exam 2

Hemoglobin

Blood protein important for gas exchange + cellular respiration

Blood Functions

Regulation- Control body temp/ regulates sweat glands, carries hormones from endocrine to target cells Transportation- carries nutrients Protection- Clotting injury site

Blood Volume In Males _ Liters Blood Volume in Females_ Liters

5-6 4-5

Hematocrit

percentage of blood volume occupied by red blood cells

Three types of Plasma Proteins + Function:

Albumin (inhibits edema), Globulins (transport lipids + fat soluble vitamins, immunity), Fibrinogen (clotting factor)

Gamma Globulin

Important treatment for hepatitis (viral infection of liver) by accelerating immune syst.

Erythrocytes

Red blood cells. Contain iron and hemoglobin. Originate in bone marrow.

Erythrocyte (RBC) degeneration after ____ days

120

Damaged Red Blood Cells Process

Spleen reaccummulates cells and releases hemoglobin --> Biliverdin (greenish/yellow color) --> Liver converts it to unconjugated bilirubin

Jaundice is the result of high ____ in the body

Biliverdin

White Blood Cell (Leukocytes) 2 types:

Agranular Leukocytes and Granular Leukocytes

Granulocytes Types and Function:

Neutrophils = Nibble bacteria (phagocytosis); Eosinophils = End parasites; Basophils = Begin allergic response (histamine)

Agranulocytes Types and Function:

Lymphocytes (Antibodies T cells and B cells); Monocytes (Phagocytosis)

T Cells

attack foreign cells directly, cell membrane changes shape

B Cells

secrete antibodies

Platelets (Thrombocytes) Role

Blood Clotting by releasing Serotonin which constricts blood vessels. Secrete Growth Factor.

When you cut your hand, ____ stop bleeding initially through clotting

Thrombocytes

Hematopoiesis

formation of blood cells. Originate in the yolk sac of embryo (4 weeks) then migrate to the liver of fetus and finally bone marrow after birth.

Deficiency of Iron, Folic Acid, or Vitamin B-12

Anemia

Conversion of Reticulocyte (Immature RBC) to Erythrocyte (Mature RBC) requires 3 factors:

Iron, Folic Acid, B-12

Polycythemia

increased number of erythrocytes and hemoglobin in the blood.

primary polycythemia

Irritation of bone marrow

Primary polycythemia symptoms:

high concentration WBC, RBC, Thrombocytes; hypertension; weak immune syst; blood clotting; enlarged Spleen + Liver; Stroke; myocardial infarction

Secondary polycythemia

Overproduction of Erythropoietin, hormone which stimulates RBC production

Secondary polycythemia symptoms

Same as primary

Normocytic anemia

Normal blood loss. Example: Caused by labor

Microcytic anemia

Iron deficiency

Macrocytic anemia

B-12 or Folic acid deficiency

Sickle Cell Disease

Genetic disorder in which red blood cells have abnormal hemoglobin molecules and take on an abnormal shape. Have difficulty passing through blood vessels.

Leukemia

Overproduction of immature WBCs. Starts in the bone marrow where cells are made.

Sickle Cell Symptoms:

Abdominal Pain; Bone Pain; Breathlessness; Jaundice

Sickle Cell Treatment

Supplements of Folic Acid + Antibiotics

Leukemia Symptoms

Night Sweats; Bleeding Easily; Joint or Bone Pain (inflammation from accumulation of antibodies); Swollen Lymph Nodes; Weakened Immune system

Leukemia Treatment

Chemo; Interferon-alpha therapy; Radiation; Stem Cell Transplant

Arteries carry blood ____ heart

away from

Veins carry blood ____ heart

toward

Smallest blood vessels:

capillaries

Similarities between arteries + veins:

walls of smooth muscle; innervated by ANS

Wall of the artery is ___ than the wall of veins

thicker than

Capacity of blood in artery is ____ than veins

much lower

Pressure in artery is much ___ than veins

Higher, since it comes from left ventricle contraction of heart

Capillaries

Contain pores for gas exchange and nutrition absorption

blood pathway through heart

DEOXYGENATED: Superior and inferior vena cava -> right atrium -> tricuspid valve -> right ventricle -> pulmonary valve -> pulmonary arteries -> lungs -> OXYGENATED: pulmonary veins -> left atrium -> bicuspid valve -> left ventricle -> aortic valve -> aorta -> body

systemic Circulation

circulation that supplies blood to all the body except to the lungs

pulmonary circulation

2 pulmonary arteries take blood from heart to lungs --> 4 pulmonary veins take blood back from lungs to heart

Aorta Pressure (Highest artery pressure)

100 mm mercury

Arterioles

smallest arteries. Alpha-1 adrenergic receptors (vasoconstriction) on arterioles of skin/renal area. Beta-2 adrenergic receptors (relaxation of vessels) found on arterioles of skeletal muscle.

Velocity of blood flow depends on:

cross section area

Blood flow depends on:

Pressure and type of vessel

artery pressure

50 mm mercury

vein pressure

4 mm mercury

Total Peripheral Resistance (TPR)

Resistance to blood flow in systemic circulation. Builds pressure in Aorta.

Cardiac output

The volume of blood ejected from the left side of the heart in one minute.

Average cardiac output: __ Liters/min

5

Resistance depends on

Viscosity of blood, length of vessel.

capacitance vessels

Ability to stretch and hold blood w/o pressure. Capacity of veins is much higher than arteries due to thinner walls.

arterial pressure

The pressure of the blood against the arterial walls.

systolic pressure

Exists in ventricular contraction

Diastolic pressure

Pressure that exists in ventricle during relaxation phase

Pulse pressure

difference between systolic and diastolic pressure

Primary Hypertension

no known cause. Environmental factors: Na+, obesity, and stress

Secondary Hypertension

high blood pressure caused by: Kidney disease, pregnancy, disorder of adrenal gland, Cushing's syndrome, drugs, thyroid problems

Hypertension symptoms

Typically asymptomatic; Headache; sweating; short of breath; pale skin

Drugs to treat hypertension

ACE inhibitors (Captopril, Ramipril); Angiotensin II receptor blockers (Valsartan); Diuretics (Hydrochlorothiazide); Calcium channel blockers (Felodipine, Benidipine); Beta-adrenergic blockers (propranolol)

TPR (total peripheral resistance) is found in _____ and _______

arterioles and capillaries

Cushing's Syndrome

Hypersecretion of cortisol, androgen, and aldosterone resulting in hyperglycemia, stretch marks, obesity w/ thinner limbs, female hair growth, infertility

Hyperaldosteronism

excessive output of aldosterone from the adrenal gland, leading to increased sodium and water retention and loss of potassium

Coarctation of the aorta

narrowing of the descending portion of the aorta, resulting in a limited flow of blood to the lower part of the body --> hypertension

Birth Control causes hypertension overtime by…

Increasing progesterone (pregnancy hormone) in blood

95% of secondary hypertension causes based on…

hormonal disorder

High levels of Na+ in blood

Increase blood volume and control depolarization phase of muscles, opening calcium channels --> hypertension

Obesity --> Type 2 diabetes --> hyperglycemia --> _______

hypertension

Deficiency of vasodilator substance _____ and _____ lead to hypertension

prostaglandin, bradykinin

Kidney disease can cause hypertension by

activating the renin angiotensin mechanism, stimulating the secretion of aldosterone, increasing the retention of sodium and water, narrowing the lumens of renal blood vessels

Preeclampsia

a complication of pregnancy characterized by hypertension, edema, and proteinuria

Pheochromocytoma differences from Cushing's syndrome:

No obesity or hyperglycemia

high cortisol levels

Increase systolic + diastolic pressure and TPR

angiotensin II

increases blood pressure by stimulating kidneys to reabsorb more water and by releasing aldosterone

Renin

hormone secreted by the kidney; it raises blood pressure by influencing vasoconstriction (narrowing of blood vessels)

P wave

atrial depolarization 0.08-0.1 sec

PR interval

delay of AV node to allow filling of ventricles 0.12-0.20 sec

QRS complex

ventricular depolarization occurs rapidly 0.06-0.1 sec

Ectopic foci

abnormal pacemaker sites within the heart

ST segment

Diagnosis ventricular ischemia or hypoxia. Elevated or depressed segment = risk of myocardial infarction

T wave

ventricular repolarization

QT interval

ventricular depolarization and repolarization 0.2-0.4 sec

Action potential: Ventricles, Atria, Purkinje system

Resting potential -90mV; Phase 0: upstroke, increase Na+; Phase 1: initial repolarization; Phase 2: Plateau, increase in Ca2+; Phase 3: Repolarization, K+ leaves the cell; Phase 4: resting membrane potential, K+ reaches equilibrium -85mV

Action potential: SA node

Phase 0: upstroke, inward Ca2+ current; Phase 3: repolarization, increase in K+; Phase 4: slow depolarization, increase in Na+

action potential cannot be generated

Effective refractory period

Relative refractory period

a stronger than usual stimulus is necessary to initiate an action potential

Case: 35yo F has hypertension, nose bleeding, vertigo, loss weight, heart palpitation, excess sweating. What is the cause of this hypertension?

Hyperthyroidism

Case: 35 yo F has hypertension, obesity, facial hair growth, high blood sodium, low potassium, fragile skin, irregular menstruation and no ovulation

Cushing's disease

Case: 35 yo F has hypertension, headache, vertigo, high blood sodium, decreased potassium, normal glucose, and no obesity

Conn's disease (hyperaldosteronism)

Case: 35 yo F has hypertension, headache, muscle spasm, normal sodium, normal potassium, normal glucose, normal wbc, but blood calcium is 25mg/dl

Hypercalcium from hyperparathyroid

Conduction pathway through the heart

SA, AV, bundle of his, bundle branches, purkinje fibers

chronotropic effects

effects of the ANS on heart rate

Dromotropic effects

changes in conduction velocity, primarily in the AV node

Inotropic effects

Affecting the contractility of the heart muscle.

Sinus tachycardia

>100 bpm

Sinus bradycardia

<60 bpm