PSY140 Chapter 6: The Self

Comprehensive practice flashcards for Chapter 6: The Self, covering self-concept, self-discrepancies, self-esteem, self-perception, self-regulation, self-efficacy, self-presentation, and building self-esteem.

How does the textbook define the "self"?

The self refers to an individual's personal identity and who they believe they are as a person.

What is the definition of the "self-concept"?

A collection of beliefs about one's own basic nature, unique qualities, and typical behavior.

What are "self-schemas"?

Beliefs about the self developed from past experience that shape social perception and concern personality traits, abilities, physical features, values, goals, sexuality, and social or cultural roles.

What are "possible selves," and which researcher identified their influence?

Possible selves are one's conceptions about the kind of person one might become in the future, developed from past experiences, current behavior, and future expectations; their influence was identified by Hazel Markus.

According to Oyserman, Destin, and Novin (2015), how does situational context affect motivation related to possible selves?

Motivation is higher in success-likely contexts when desired possible futures come to mind, whereas motivation is higher in failure-likely contexts when undesired possible futures come to mind.

What are the three organized self-perceptions described in E. Tory Higgins' (1987) theory?

The actual self (qualities you believe you actually possess), the ideal self (characteristics you would like to have), and the ought self (traits you believe you should possess).

What is "self-discrepancy"?

A mismatch between the self-perceptions that make up the actual self, ideal self, and ought self.

According to Higgins, what specific emotional states and consequences are produced by a discrepancy between the actual self and the ideal self?

Discrepancies between the actual self and ideal self trigger dejection-related emotions such as disappointment, dejection, and sadness, which can make individuals vulnerable to depression.

According to Higgins, what specific emotional states and consequences result from a discrepancy between the actual self and the ought self?

Discrepancies between the actual self and ought self produce agitation-related emotions including anxiety, irritability, and guilt, which can result in anxiety-related disorders.

What three factors determine whether experiencing self-discrepancies causes significant negative emotional effects?

The amount of discrepancy experienced, the person's awareness of the discrepancy, and whether the discrepancy is actually important to the person.

What is the "imposter syndrome" and what are its psychological consequences?

The feeling that one is a phony or a fraud who does not deserve the accomplishments garnered and may be discovered at any moment; consequences include stress, psychological strain, reliance on avoidant coping, and low job satisfaction.

What are two primary ways individuals can cope with uncomfortable self-discrepancies?

Bringing their behavior more in line with their ideal or ought selves, or bringing their ideal self more in line with their actual abilities.

What is the "self-reference effect" identified by Rogers, Kuiper, and Kirker (1977)?

The phenomenon in which information processed in relation to the self is remembered better and recalled more quickly than non-related information.

What does Leon Festinger's (1954) social comparison theory propose?

Individuals compare themselves with others in order to assess their abilities and opinions.

What is a "reference group" in social comparison?

A set of people who are used as a gauge or social benchmark in making social comparisons.

How do upward and downward social comparisons differ in function?

Upward social comparisons involve comparing oneself to superior others to motivate skill development and direct effort, whereas downward social comparisons involve comparing oneself to those perceived as worse off to bolster self-esteem and elevate mood.

What did the Myers (1980) SAT survey find that illustrates the "better-than-average effect"?

$100\%$ of respondents rated themselves as above average in the ability to get along with others, and $25\%$ viewed themselves as being in the top $1\%$.

What is the "Michelangelo phenomenon"?

A process in which a relationship partner's support and affirmation help sculpt a loved one's actual self-views and behavior to match their ideal self.

How does the textbook distinguish between "individualism" and "collectivism"?

Individualism involves putting personal goals ahead of group goals and defining identity by personal attributes, while collectivism involves putting group goals ahead of personal goals and defining identity in terms of group memberships.

How do independent and interdependent views of the self differ across cultures?

An independent view perceives the self as unique, self-contained, and clearly separated from others, whereas an interdependent view perceives the self as inextricably connected to others, prioritizing harmonious relationships.

How did American and Indian students differ when choosing a pen in the study by Kim and Markus / Nicholson?

American students consistently chose the single distinct blue pen out of four red pens (emphasizing agency and uniqueness), while Indian students consistently selected a common red pen.

In the pen selection study examining social class within the United States, how did working-class students differ from middle-class students?

Middle-class American students routinely chose a distinct pen (emphasizing agency), while working-class students often chose a similar pen (demonstrating a desire to connect with others).

What is "self-esteem"?

One's overall global assessment of one's worth as a person, combining assessments of various aspects of one's self-concept.

What is "self-concept confusion" according to Roy Baumeister (1998)?

A condition among individuals with low self-esteem whose self-views are less clear, less complete, more self-contradictory, and more tentative, because they do not know themselves well enough to endorse attributes strongly.

What is the difference between trait self-esteem and state self-esteem?

Trait self-esteem is an ongoing, enduring sense of confidence regarding one's abilities and characteristics across time, whereas state self-esteem is dynamic and changeable based on momentary situations, feedback, or moods.

How is the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale scored, and what is its range?

It consists of $10$ items scored $1$ to $4$, with five negatively worded items ($3$, $5$, $8$, $9$, and $10$) reverse-scored; total scores range between $10$ and $40$, where higher scores indicate higher self-esteem.

What are the primary emotional advantages associated with high self-esteem versus low self-esteem?

High self-esteem is strongly and consistently related to greater happiness, whereas low self-esteem is a consistent risk factor for depressive symptoms and depression.

What does psychological research indicate regarding the causal relationship between self-esteem and academic performance?

High self-esteem is not a reliable cause of good academic performance; rather, good grades are more likely the cause of higher self-esteem.

How does the "vicious circle of low self-esteem and poor performance" operate?

Low self-esteem leads to negative expectations, which trigger low effort and high anxiety, culminating in failure, which prompts self-blame that feeds back to lower self-esteem further.

What is "narcissism"?

The tendency to regard oneself as grandiosely self-important, express excessive self-love, and display a selfish orientation characterized by a lack of empathy and high sensitivity to criticism.

How do narcissistic individuals respond when they encounter an ego threat, according to Bushman and Baumeister (1998)?

They perceive negative evaluations as highly threatening, triggering strong hostile feelings and exceptionally high levels of aggressive behavior toward the evaluator.

What two major dimensions underlie parenting behavior according to Diana Baumrind?

Parental acceptance (emotional support) and parental control (firm limits).

What are Diana Baumrind's four distinct parenting styles?

Authoritative (high acceptance, high control), Authoritarian (low acceptance, high control), Permissive (high acceptance, low control), and Neglectful (low acceptance, low control).

Which of Baumrind's parenting styles is associated with the highest self-esteem scores across diverse ethnic groups?

Authoritative parenting (high acceptance, high control).

What pattern of ethnic differences in self-esteem was reported by Twenge and Crocker (2002)?

Blacks score higher than Whites, Whites do not differ significantly from Hispanics, and Hispanics score higher than Asian Americans.

According to the meta-analysis by Gentile et al. (2009), in which domains did men have higher self-esteem than women, and vice versa?

Men scored higher in physical appearance, athleticism, personal self, and self-satisfaction; women scored higher in behavioral conduct and moral/ethical self-esteem.

What is "intersectionality" as defined in the textbook?

An awareness and understanding that multiple social categories (e.g., race, gender, sexual orientation, disability, social class) are interconnected and shape how people navigate systems of power, privilege, and discrimination.

Why did Shelley Taylor describe human beings as "cognitive misers"?

Because cognitive resources such as attention and memory are limited, the mind hoards them by using cognitive shortcuts.

Distinguish between automatic processing and controlled processing (mindlessness vs. mindfulness) as described by Ellen Langer.

Automatic processing (mindlessness) is a default, routine mode requiring minimal cognitive effort that leads to rigid thinking; controlled processing (mindfulness) involves active, conscious allocation of cognitive resources, promoting cognitive flexibility and well-being.

What is the "cocktail party effect"?

The ability to selectively focus attention and pick out the mention of one's own name in a roomful of chattering people.

What is the "spotlight effect"?

The tendency to vastly overestimate how conspicuous one is in the minds and attention of other people.

What are "self-attributions"?

Inferences that people draw about the causes of their own behavior.

Who established the internal versus external dimension of causal attributions, and what does it entail?

Fritz Heider (1958); internal attributions ascribe causes to personal dispositions, traits, abilities, and feelings, whereas external attributions ascribe causes to situational demands and environmental constraints.

What does the stability dimension in attribution theory differentiate?

It differentiates between stable causes (permanent and unlikely to change, such as intelligence) and unstable causes (temporary, variable, and subject to change, such as mood or luck).

In Bernard Weiner's attribution model, what factors represent internal-unstable versus external-stable causes?

Internal-unstable causes include effort, mood, and fatigue; external-stable causes include task difficulty.

In Bernard Weiner's attribution model, what factors represent internal-stable versus external-unstable causes?

Internal-stable causes include ability and intelligence; external-unstable causes include luck, chance, and opportunity.

What is the third dimension of attributional thinking in Bernard Weiner's model?

The controllable versus uncontrollable dimension, acknowledging whether causes are under an individual's control (e.g., effort) or beyond their control (e.g., innate aptitude).

What is an "explanatory style" according to Martin Seligman?

The tendency to use similar causal attributions for a wide variety of events in one's life.

How does an individual with an optimistic explanatory style attribute setbacks?

They attribute setbacks to external, unstable, and specific factors, which psychologically protects self-esteem and fosters active, goal-directed behavior.

How does an individual with a pessimistic explanatory style attribute setbacks, and what are the consequences?

They attribute setbacks to internal, stable, and global factors, leading to expectations of lack of control, learned helplessness, and depression.

What is "catastrophizing" and what did Peterson et al. (1998) discover regarding its health risks?

Catastrophizing is attributing negative events to global causes; longitudinal evidence revealed it predicted accidental and violent deaths.

What two major motives guide self-understanding?

The self-assessment motive (desire for truthful information about oneself) and the self-enhancement motive (desire to seek positive and reject negative information).

What is the "Dunning-Kruger effect"?

A cognitive bias where individuals fail to recognize their own lack of skill in a domain, fail to recognize genuine skill in others, and remain unaware of their inadequacy while overestimating their competence.

What is "affective forecasting"?

The process of predicting one's future emotional reactions (feelings) in response to good or bad events.

What is "impact bias" in affective forecasting?

The tendency to misjudge and overestimate the eventual intensity and duration of one's emotional response to a future event.

What is "focalism"?

The tendency to overemphasize how much one will think about a single event in the future while underestimating how other events will compete for thoughts and feelings.

What did Dunn, Wilson, and Gilbert (2003) find regarding college students' affective forecasting of dormitory assignments?

Students predicted their assigned dorm would strongly determine their happiness, but one year later, those in desirable versus undesirable dorms reported virtually identical levels of happiness.

What is "self-enhancement"?

The defensive tendency to seek positive and reject negative information about oneself.

How does downward social comparison function as a method of self-enhancement?

When self-esteem is threatened, individuals defensively compare themselves with those whose troubles are worse than their own, which elevates mood and self-esteem.

What is the "self-serving bias"?

The tendency to attribute one's successes to personal (internal) factors and one's failures to situational (external) factors.

How does friendship moderate the self-serving bias according to Campbell et al. (2000)?

While strangers take credit for joint successes and blame partners for failures, friends share responsibility for both successful and unsuccessful outcomes.

What is "basking in reflected glory" (BIRGing)?

The tendency to enhance one's image by publicly announcing one's association with successful others (e.g., proclaiming "We won!" after a team victory).

What is "cutting off reflected failure" (CORFing)?

The tendency to protect self-esteem by downplaying or distancing oneself from an association with an unsuccessful or failing group/individual.

What is "self-regulation"?

The process of directing and controlling one's behavior to achieve desired goals.

What does the "ego depletion model" of self-regulation propose?

The hypothesis that self-control is a limited, shared resource; expending self-control to resist temptation on one task temporarily depletes available capacity for subsequent self-regulation.

What did the Baumeister et al. (1998) radish versus chocolate study reveal about self-control?

Participants who expended self-control by eating radishes while resisting chocolate treats persisted for significantly less time and made fewer attempts on unsolvable puzzles than chocolate eaters or controls.

What did Walter Mischel's delay of gratification studies show regarding 4-year-olds when followed up 10 years later?

Children who were better at delaying gratification at age $4$ exhibited superior academic performance and social competence $10$ years later.

What is "self-efficacy" according to Albert Bandura?

One's belief about one's ability to perform behaviors that should lead to expected outcomes; the conviction that one can achieve specific goals.

What are Albert Bandura's four sources of self-efficacy?

1. Mastery experiences, 2. Vicarious experiences, 3. Persuasion and encouragement, and 4. Interpretation of emotional arousal.

Why are mastery experiences considered the most effective path to developing self-efficacy?

Persisting through difficulties and mistakes to achieve eventual success teaches the fundamental lesson: "I can do it!"

How does excessive social media use impact self-evaluation according to Midgley et al. (2021)?

Frequent, extreme upward social comparisons on social media lead to immediate declines in self-evaluations, worsening moods, and lower life satisfaction, especially among those with low self-esteem.

What positive outcome did Meshi & Ellithorpe (2021) report regarding media-based social support?

Higher media-based social support was associated with reduced anxiety, isolation, and depression.

What are "self-defeating behaviors"?

Seemingly intentional actions that thwart a person's self-interest, offering immediate pleasures while laying the groundwork for long-term problems.

What are Roy Baumeister's (1997) three categories of self-defeating behaviors?

Deliberate self-destruction, tradeoffs, and counterproductive strategies.

How do "tradeoffs" and "counterproductive strategies" differ in self-defeating behavior?

In tradeoffs, people accept foreseeable harm to achieve an immediate desirable goal (e.g., procrastination, overeating); in counterproductive strategies, people pursue a desirable goal using an approach that is bound to fail (e.g., unrequited love).

What is a "public self," and how is self-congruence related to adjustment?

A public self is an image presented to others in social interactions; individuals who view themselves as similar across multiple social roles are better adjusted than those with divergent public selves.

What did sociologist Erving Goffman mean by the term "face"?

The idealized image that people try to create and maintain in the minds of others during social interactions.

What is "impression management" and what are four common strategies?

Usually conscious efforts to influence how others think of oneself; strategies include ingratiation, self-promotion, supplication, and negative acknowledgment.

How do "ingratiation" and "negative acknowledgment" function in impression management?

Ingratiation involves behaving in ways to make oneself likable (e.g., compliments), whereas negative acknowledgment involves candidly confessing a minor error or flaw to appear honest and head off counterarguments.

What is "self-monitoring" and how do high self-monitors differ from low self-monitors?

Self-monitoring refers to attending to and controlling the impressions made on others; high self-monitors tailor behavior pragmatically to social contexts and control nonverbal signals, whereas low self-monitors behave spontaneously and express true beliefs.