AP U.S. Government & Politics - Unit 1: FOUNDATIONS OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY

1. Natural Rights

Rights people are born with and that government does not give them. Locke identified life, liberty, and property.

2. Popular Sovereignty

The idea that government gets its authority from the people.

3. Social Contract

People agree to give government some power in exchange for protection of their rights and security. If government violates that agreement, people have a right to change it.

4. Limited Government

Government power is restricted by laws and the Constitution. Government officials are not above the law.

5. Republicanism

Citizens govern themselves indirectly by electing representatives to make decisions for them.

6. Republic vs. Direct Democracy

In a republic, citizens elect representatives to make laws. In a direct democracy, citizens directly vote on government decisions.

7. Faction

A group of people united by a common interest that may pursue goals that conflict with the rights or interests of others.

8. Why are factions dangerous?

A majority faction could use its political power to violate the rights of a minority.

9. Madison's solution to factions

A large republic with many competing factions makes it harder for one faction to gain enough power to dominate everyone else.

10. John Locke

Natural rights, social contract, and the idea that government exists to protect people's rights.

11. Thomas Hobbes

Without government, people would live in disorder and conflict, so people surrender some freedom to a strong government for security.

12. Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Popular sovereignty: legitimate government is based on the general will of the people.

13. Baron de Montesquieu

Separation of powers. Government power should be divided among different branches to prevent tyranny.

14. Participatory Democracy

Democracy in which ordinary citizens directly participate in politics.

Example: Voting, protesting, attending town meetings, contacting representatives.

15. Pluralist Democracy

Democracy in which interest groups compete to influence government policy.

Example: Environmental groups, business organizations, unions, and other groups lobbying Congress.

16. Elite Democracy

Democracy in which a small group of wealthy, powerful, or influential people has disproportionate influence over government.

17. Institution

An established structure or organization that shapes political behavior and makes government processes predictable.

Examples: Congress, presidency, Supreme Court, political parties.

18. Why do institutions make power predictable?

They establish rules, procedures, and roles that tell political actors how government is supposed to operate.

19. Capacity

How much government is actually able to accomplish.

20. Limits

What government is legally or constitutionally prevented from doing.

21. Legitimacy

Whether people believe government has the right and authority to govern.

22. What were the Articles of Confederation?

America's first national governing document. It created a weak national government in which states retained most power.

23. What type of system did the Articles create?

A confederal system, where the states were more powerful than the national government.

24. What was the biggest weakness of the Articles?

The national government was too weak to effectively raise money, regulate commerce, enforce laws, or respond to national problems.

25. Name three things the national government could NOT do under the Articles.

Could not tax citizens directly

Could not regulate interstate commerce

Could not effectively enforce its laws

Also: no executive branch, no national court system, and no power to draft soldiers.

26. Why couldn't Congress tax under the Articles?

Congress could only request money from the states. States could refuse.

27. Why was the lack of an executive branch a problem?

There was no separate national official responsible for enforcing national laws.

28. Why was the lack of a national judiciary a problem?

There was no national court system to consistently interpret national laws or resolve disputes involving the national government.

29. Why couldn't Congress regulate interstate commerce?

The states controlled commerce, which encouraged states to tax or restrict one another's trade.

30. What was Shays's Rebellion?

A 1786-1787 uprising of Massachusetts farmers protesting taxes and debt policies.

31. Why did Shays's Rebellion alarm Federalists?

It demonstrated that the national government under the Articles was too weak to maintain order or respond effectively to crises.

32. What did Shays's Rebellion help convince Americans of?

That the Articles needed to be replaced with a stronger national government.

33. What was the commerce crisis of the 1780s?

States imposed tariffs and restrictions on one another's trade because the national government lacked the authority to regulate interstate commerce.

34. What were the major weaknesses of the Articles?

Remember:

No TAX → No TRADE → No ENFORCEMENT

No power to tax

No power to regulate interstate commerce

No effective executive

No national judiciary

Difficult amendment process

States retained enormous power

35. What factors influenced the creation of the Constitution?

Weaknesses of the Articles

Shays's Rebellion

Economic/commercial problems

Fear of excessive state power

Fear of excessive national power

Competing interests among large and small states

Conflict between slave and free states

Desire for a stronger but limited national government

36. What competing interests existed at the Constitutional Convention?

Delegates had to balance:

Large vs. small states

North vs. South

Free states vs. slave states

National power vs. state power

Agricultural vs. commercial interests

37. Why was the Constitutional Convention originally called?

To fix the Articles of Confederation, although delegates ultimately decided to create an entirely new system.

38. Great Compromise

Created a bicameral Congress:

House of Representatives = representation based on population

Senate = equal representation, two senators per state

39. What problem did the Great Compromise solve?

The conflict between large states, which wanted representation based on population, and small states, which wanted equal representation.

40. Virginia Plan

Favored large states by proposing representation based largely on population.

41. New Jersey Plan

Favored small states by keeping equal representation for each state.

42. Three-Fifths Compromise

For purposes of congressional representation and taxation, three-fifths of the enslaved population would be counted.

43. Why was the Three-Fifths Compromise created?

Southern states wanted enslaved people counted toward population for representation, while Northern states opposed giving the South greater political power based on enslaved people.

44. Great Compromise vs. Three-Fifths Compromise

Great Compromise addressed state representation. Three-Fifths addressed how enslaved people would be counted for representation and taxation.

45. Was the Three-Fifths Compromise actually a compromise over slavery?

Yes, but it did not resolve slavery. It temporarily resolved the political conflict over representation and taxation while preserving slavery.

46. 1808 Slave Trade Clause

Congress could not prohibit the importation of enslaved people before 1808.

47. Electoral College

The system through which states choose electors who formally select the president.

48. Separation of Powers

Government power is divided among three branches:

Legislative

Executive

Judicial

49. Why separation of powers?

To prevent too much power from being concentrated in one person or institution.

50. Checks and Balances

Each branch has powers that can limit the other branches.

51. Example of checks and balances: Congress

President

→ Congress can override a presidential veto with a two-thirds vote in both chambers.

52. Example: President

Congress

→ The president can veto legislation passed by Congress.

53. Example: Supreme Court

Congress

→ The Supreme Court can declare a law unconstitutional through judicial review.

54. Example: Senate

President

→ The Senate confirms presidential appointments and ratifies treaties by the required vote.

55. Bicameralism

A legislature with two chambers.

56. Why does Congress have two chambers?

It balances different interests and prevents legislation from being passed too quickly. The House represents population, while the Senate represents states equally.

57. Article I

Legislative branch. Establishes Congress and its powers.

58. Article II

Executive branch. Establishes the presidency and executive powers.

59. Article III

Judicial branch. Establishes the Supreme Court and federal judiciary.

60. Article I vs. Article II vs. Article III

I = Congress

II = President

III = Courts

61. Necessary and Proper Clause

Article I, Section 8. Gives Congress power to make laws necessary and proper for carrying out its enumerated powers.

Also called the Elastic Clause.

62. What does "necessary" mean according to McCulloch?

It does not mean absolutely essential. It means appropriate, useful, or conducive to carrying out constitutional powers.

63. Supremacy Clause

Article VI. The Constitution, federal laws, and treaties are the supreme law of the land when they are constitutional.

64. What happens when state and federal laws conflict?

Valid federal law generally takes priority because of the Supremacy Clause.

65. What is federal preemption?

When valid federal law overrides conflicting state law.

66. How can the Constitution be formally amended?

An amendment must first be proposed and then ratified.

67. Proposal threshold

Two-thirds of both houses of Congress OR a convention called by two-thirds of state legislatures.

68. Ratification threshold

Three-fourths of the states must ratify.

69. Why is the amendment process difficult?

It requires broad national and state agreement, preventing temporary majorities from easily changing the Constitution.

70. Federalists

Supported ratification of the Constitution and wanted a stronger national government.

71. Anti-Federalists

Opposed or criticized the Constitution because they feared centralized national power and threats to individual liberties.

72. What did Anti-Federalists want?

Greater protections for individual rights and stronger protections for state power.

73. Why did Federalists initially oppose a Bill of Rights?

They argued that the federal government only had the powers specifically granted to it, so listing rights could imply that unlisted rights were not protected.

74. Massachusetts Compromise

Massachusetts agreed to ratify the Constitution while supporters promised to pursue amendments protecting individual rights.

75. Why was the Bill of Rights added?

To address Anti-Federalist concerns and protect individual liberties from government abuse.

76. Federalism

A system in which national and state governments share power, with each having some independent authority.

77. Unitary System

A system where the central government holds most political power.

Example: United Kingdom.

78. Confederal System

A system where states or regional governments hold most power.

American example: Articles of Confederation.

79. Federal System

Power is constitutionally divided between national and state governments.

American example: United States under the Constitution.

80. Jurisdiction

The legal authority of a court or government to hear a case or exercise power over a particular issue, person, or geographic area.

81. Enumerated Powers

Powers specifically listed in the Constitution for the federal government.

Examples: Tax, regulate interstate commerce, declare war.

82. Implied Powers

Powers not explicitly written but considered necessary and proper for carrying out enumerated powers.

Example: Creating a national bank.

83. Reserved Powers

Powers kept by the states under the Tenth Amendment.

Examples: Education, licensing, local governments.

84. Concurrent Powers

Powers shared by both federal and state governments.

Examples: Taxing, borrowing money, establishing courts.

85. Tenth Amendment

Powers not given to the federal government or prohibited to the states are reserved to the states or the people.

86. Why is the Tenth Amendment important to federalism?

It establishes the principle that the federal government does not possess unlimited power and that states retain authority.

87. EASY WAY TO REMEMBER THE FOUR POWERS

Enumerated = Explicitly listed

Implied = Inferred

Reserved = States retain

Concurrent = Combined/shared

88. Dual Federalism

Federal and state governments have separate areas of authority.

Metaphor: Layer cake.

Rough period: ~1789-1930s.

89. Cooperative Federalism

Federal and state governments work together and share responsibilities.

Metaphor: Marble cake.

Rough period: ~1930s-1960s.

90. Why did the New Deal change federalism?

The Great Depression created major economic problems that led to expanded federal involvement in the economy and society.

91. Devolution

The transfer of power and responsibility from the federal government back to states.

92. Who pushed devolution?

Particularly associated with Ronald Reagan and later Republican efforts to reduce federal involvement.

93. Argument for devolution

States are closer to citizens and may be better able to design policies suited to their populations.

94. Fiscal Federalism

The use of federal money to influence state and local governments.

95. Grants-in-Aid

Federal money given to state or local governments for specific purposes.

96. Categorical Grant

Federal money given for a specific purpose, usually with significant federal restrictions.

State discretion: LOW.

97. Block Grant

Federal money given for a broad policy area, allowing states more freedom over how to spend it.

State discretion: HIGH.

98. Which do states prefer?

Usually block grants, because they give states greater flexibility.

99. Unfunded Mandate

A federal requirement imposed on states/local governments without providing enough money to pay for it.

100. Revenue Sharing

Federal money given to state/local governments with relatively few restrictions.