Language development: Elementary School and Adolescence Chapter 8

Language Input for School Aged Children: Around what age do children begin gaining more language input from text?

Around ages 8–10 years, children begin getting more language input from written text, such as books, stories, and textbooks. They learn new vocabulary and language concepts through reading rather than relying only on spoken conversations.

Language Input for School Aged Children:What happens to language learning when children begin getting more language input from text?

Language learning becomes more individualized because children are exposed to different words and language concepts depending on what they read and their interests.

Example: One child reads books about animals and learns animal vocabulary, while another reads about space and learns words about planets.

Language Input for School Aged Children: How does reading contribute to the development of oral language?

Reading helps develop three aspects of oral language:

• Phonological: Develops awareness of speech sounds.

• Semantic: Helps children learn new vocabulary and understand word meanings.

• Pragmatic: Helps children understand how language is used in social situations.

Language Input for School Aged Children: How does reading help children review and understand written words?

Reading allows children to look back at written words, reread sentences, and think about their meanings. Unlike spoken conversations, written words remain in front of children, allowing them more time to understand the information.

Example: A child comes across an unfamiliar word in a book and rereads the sentence to figure out its meaning.

Literacy Development: What is grapheme-to-phoneme correspondence?

: Understanding the relationship between written letters (graphemes) and spoken sounds (phonemes). This helps children connect letters to sounds when learning to read.

Literacy Development: What is a grapheme?

A written letter or group of letters that represents a sound.

Example: B or SH.

Literacy Development:What is a phoneme?

The smallest individual unit of sound in a spoken word.

Example: The word CAT contains /k/, /æ/, and /t/.

Literacy Development: What preschool skills does learning to read rely on?

Print awareness and phonological awareness. Children need to understand how written language works and recognize the sounds in spoken words.

Literacy Development: Why do children progress through developmental stages when learning to read?

Reading develops gradually as children build skills, moving from recognizing letters and sounds toward reading words.

Stage 1 - Prereading:What is Stage 1 of literacy development?

The prereading stage, which lasts from birth to the beginning of formal education. During this time, children develop the foundational skills needed to learn how to read.

Stage 1 - Prereading: What three skills develop during the prereading stage?

Oral language, print awareness, and phonological awareness. These skills prepare children for formal reading instruction.

Stage 1 - Prereading: What is oral language development during the prereading stage?

: Developing the ability to understand and use spoken language, including learning vocabulary and communicating with others.

Stage 1 - Prereading: What is print awareness during the prereading stage?

Understanding that written words, letters, and symbols have meaning and serve a purpose.

Stage 1 - Prereading: What is phonological awareness during the prereading stage?

Developing sensitivity to the sound structures of spoken words, such as rhymes, syllables, and beginning sounds.

Stage 2: Initial Reading (Decoding): What is Stage 2 of literacy development?

The initial reading (decoding) stage, which typically occurs during Kindergarten–1st grade (K–1). Children begin learning to decode words by connecting written letters with their corresponding sounds.

Stage 2: Initial Reading (Decoding): What does decoding mean?

Decoding is the process of associating written letters with their corresponding sounds to read words.

Example: C-A-T → /k/ /æ/ /t/ → CAT.

Stage 2: Initial Reading (Decoding): What happens during Phase 1 of initial reading?

Reading errors are semantically and syntactically probable. Children choose words that make sense with the sentence meaning and grammatical structure, even if they do not look like the written word.

Example: Reading "running" instead of "barking."

Stage 2: Initial Reading (Decoding): What does it mean when errors have a graphic resemblance (Phase 2)?

Children make mistakes by confusing words that look visually similar because they share letters or spelling patterns.

Example: Reading HOUSE as HORSE.

Stage 2: Initial Reading (Decoding): What happens during Phase 3 of initial reading?

Reading errors have both a graphic resemblance to the written word and are semantically acceptable, meaning they also make sense in the sentence.

Example: Reading "horse" instead of "house" in "The house is red."

Stage 2: Initial Reading (Decoding): What is the difference between the three phases of initial reading?

• Phase 1: Errors make sense grammatically and semantically.

• Phase 2: Errors look visually similar to the written word.

• Phase 3: Errors look visually similar AND make sense in context.

Stage 3 - Confirmation, Fluency, and

Ungluing From Prin: When does Stage 3 of literacy development typically occur?

Grades 2–3. During this stage, children improve their decoding skills, become more confident readers, and develop reading fluency.

Stage 3 - Confirmation, Fluency, and

Ungluing From Print: What happens to children's decoding skills during Stage 3?

A: Children hone their decoding skills and become more confident. They become better at connecting letters with sounds and recognizing written words.

Stage 3 - Confirmation, Fluency, and

Ungluing From Print: What is reading fluency?

: Reading that is efficient, well-paced, and free of errors. Children read more smoothly without constantly stopping to sound out words.

Stage 3 - Confirmation, Fluency, and

Ungluing From Print: What does it mean to unglue from print?

A: Reading becomes more automatic as children develop confidence and fluency. They recognize words more easily instead of having to sound out every word.

Stage 3 - Confirmation, Fluency, and

Ungluing From Print: How does reading fluency help children?

A: It allows children to recognize words more easily and focus more on understanding what they are reading rather than concentrating on decoding every word.

Stage 4 - Reading to Learn the New – A

First Step: When does Stage 4 of literacy development typically occur?

Grades 4–8 or 9. During this stage, children begin using reading to gain new information and learn about the world.

Stage 4 - Reading to Learn the New – A

First Step: What is the main purpose of reading during Stage 4?

Reading to gain new information. Children use their reading abilities to learn new concepts, understand unfamiliar topics, and gain knowledge about the world.

Stage 4 - Reading to Learn the New – A

First Step: What happens during the first phase of Stage 4?

Children develop the ability to read beyond egocentric purposes. They begin reading to learn conventional information about the world rather than focusing only on their personal interests and experiences.

Stage 4 - Reading to Learn the New – A

First Step: What does reading beyond egocentric purposes mean?

It means children can read about topics beyond their own personal experiences and interests to gain information about the world.

Example: Reading about planets, history, or science.

Stage 4 - Reading to Learn the New – A

First Step: What happens during the second phase of Stage 4?

Children develop the ability to read on a general adult level, meaning they can understand more advanced written information and learn independently through reading.

Stage 4 - Reading to Learn the New – A

First Step: What are the two phases of Stage 4?

1. Develop the ability to read beyond egocentric purposes to learn conventional information about the world.

2. Develop the ability to read on a general adult level.

Stages 5 and 6: When does Stage 5 of literacy development occur, and what is it called

Stage 5 is called Multiple Viewpoints. It typically occurs during high school, around ages 14–18. Students learn to understand increasingly difficult concepts through reading and consider different perspectives.

Stages 5 and 6: What does it mean to navigate increasingly difficult concepts through text?

Students develop the ability to read and understand more complicated information, ideas, and topics through written materials.

Example: Understanding advanced science textbooks or complicated historical events.

Stages 5 and 6: What does considering multiple viewpoints mean?

Understanding that different people can have different opinions, beliefs, and perspectives about the same topic.

Example: Two people may have different opinions about the same historical event.

Stages 5 and 6: When does Stage 6 of literacy development occur, and what is it called?

Stage 6 is called Construction and Reconstruction: A World View. It occurs around age 18 and older, typically during college.

Stages 5 and 6: What does it mean to read selectively to suit their purposes?

Choosing specific reading materials and information based on personal goals or what they need to accomplish.

Example: A college student selects research articles related to an assignment.

Stages 5 and 6: What are analysis, synthesis, and prediction?

• Analysis: Breaking information down and examining it.

• Synthesis: Combining information from different sources to develop a broader understanding.

• Prediction: Using information to anticipate what might happen or what conclusions may follow.

Stages 5 and 6: How do readers construct meaning from text during Stage 6?

They use analysis, synthesis, and prediction to examine information, combine ideas, and develop their own understanding of what they read.

Metalinguistic Competence: What is metalinguistic competence? What are two examples of developing metalinguistic competence?

The ability to think about and analyze language itself rather than just using it to communicate.

A: Increased phonological awareness skills and the use of figurative language.

Metalinguistic Competence: What does increased phonological awareness mean?

Children become better at recognizing and analyzing the sounds in spoken words, such as rhymes, syllables, and individual sounds.

Metalinguistic Competence: What is figurative language?

Language that uses expressions to communicate meanings beyond the literal meaning of the words.

Example: "It's raining cats and dogs" means it is raining very heavily.

Metalinguistic Competence: How does metalinguistic competence change the way children use language?

Children become able to think about how language works, recognize sound patterns, and understand expressions with nonliteral meanings.

Metalinguistic Competence: Does phonological awareness continue developing during the school-aged years?

Yes. Children continue improving their ability to recognize, understand, and work with the sounds in spoken words as they get older.

Metalinguistic Competence: What are three later-developing phonological awareness abilities?

Blending, segmenting, and manipulating sounds.

Metalinguistic Competence: What is blending?

Combining individual sounds together to create a complete word.

Example: /k/ + /æ/ + /t/ = CAT.

Metalinguistic Competence: What is segmenting?

Breaking a word apart into its individual sounds.

Example: DOG = /d/ /ɔ/ /g/.

Metalinguistic Competence: What is manipulating sounds?

Changing, adding, or removing sounds within a word to create a different word.

Example: CAT → BAT by changing /k/ to /b/.

Metalinguistic Competence: : What are onset and rime?

The onset is the beginning consonant sound of a syllable, while the rime is the vowel and the sounds that follow it.

Example: CAT = /k/ (onset) + /æt/ (rime).

Metalinguistic Competence: How is the ability to segment words into onset-rime segments and individual phonemes related to reading and spelling?

It helps children understand how words are made up of sounds and how those sounds connect to written letters, which supports reading and spelling.

Metalinguistic Competence Cont. What is figurative language?

Language that communicates meaning beyond the literal meaning of the words being used.

Example: "It's raining cats and dogs" means it is raining very heavily.

Metalinguistic Competence Cont. What is a metaphor?

A comparison between two ideas or objects that conveys similarity by stating that they are the same.

Example: "Time is money."

Metalinguistic Competence Cont. How does understanding and using figurative language change as children get older?

Understanding and use of metaphors and other types of figurative language increase with age. Children become better at recognizing nonliteral meanings and using figurative expressions.

Metalinguistic Competence Cont. What does it mean to understand the nonliteral meaning of an expression?

Understanding what someone actually means rather than interpreting their words exactly as they are stated.

Example: "I'm drowning in homework" means having too much homework, not literally drowning.

Metalinguistic Competence Cont. What does the expression "monkey business" mean?

Mischievous or deceitful behavior. It is an expression that has a meaning beyond its literal words.

Metalinguistic Competence Cont. What is a simile?

A figure of speech that compares two different things using the words "like" or "as" to show a similarity.

Example: "As happy as a clam."

Metalinguistic Competence Cont. What are the three parts of a simile?

• Topic: What is being described.

• Vehicle: What it is being compared to.

• Ground: The characteristic or similarity they share.

Metalinguistic Competence Cont. How do similes make comparisons explicit?

They use the words "like" or "as" to clearly show that two things are being compared.

Example: "She is as brave as a lion."

Metalinguistic Competence Cont. How is the ability to understand and produce similes and metaphors related to children's development?

It is related to general cognition, language development, and academic achievement.

Metalinguistic Competence Cont. What is the difference between a simile and a metaphor?

A simile compares two things using "like" or "as," while a metaphor compares two things by stating that they are the same.

Example:

• Simile: She is as fast as a cheetah.

• Metaphor: She is a cheetah.

Metalinguistic Competence Cont. What is hyperbole?

Exaggeration used for emphasis or effect. It makes something sound more extreme than it really is.

Example: "I've told you a million times!"

Metalinguistic Competence Cont. What are idioms?

Expressions that have both a literal meaning and a figurative meaning. The intended meaning is not always the same as the actual words.

Example: "Break a leg" means good luck.

Metalinguistic Competence Cont. What is an opaque idiom?

An idiom with little relationship between its literal meaning and its figurative meaning. The words themselves do not give much of a clue about what the expression means.

Example: "Kick the bucket" means to die.

Metalinguistic Competence Cont. What is a transparent idiom?

An idiom where the figurative meaning is an extension of the literal meaning. The literal meaning gives a clue about the intended meaning.

Example: "See eye to eye" means to agree.

Metalinguistic Competence Cont. Which idioms are the most difficult to understand?

Opaque idioms and less frequently used idioms because their literal meanings provide little help in understanding their figurative meanings.

Metalinguistic Competence Cont. What is the difference between opaque and transparent idioms?

• Opaque = Little connection between literal and figurative meanings.

• Transparent = Literal meaning provides a clue to the figurative meaning.

Metalinguistic Competence Cont. What are irony and sarcasm?

They occur when a speaker's intentions differ from the literal meaning of their words. The speaker says something but intends a different meaning.

Metalinguistic Competence Cont. What is irony?

When general expectations are not met, and the unexpected situation is not the fault of an individual.

Example: A fire station catches on fire.

Metalinguistic Competence Cont. What is sarcasm?

A comment that refers to a specific individual's failure to meet an expectation, often by saying the opposite of what is actually meant.

Example: Someone spills a drink, and another person says, "Nice job!"

Metalinguistic Competence Cont. At what age can children begin distinguishing between an individual's intentions and understanding sarcastic comments as more negative?

Around ages 9–10. Children become better at recognizing that someone may say something but intend a different meaning.

Metalinguistic Competence Cont. What is dramatic irony?

When the audience knows information or facts that the characters in a story are unaware of.

Example: The audience knows someone is hiding in a room, but the character entering the room does not.

Metalinguistic Competence Cont. What are proverbs?

Statements that express the conventional values, beliefs, and wisdom of a society. They communicate lessons, advice, or messages that go beyond their literal meaning.

Example: "Practice makes perfect."

Metalinguistic Competence Cont. Why are proverbs difficult for children and adolescents to master?

Proverbs can be difficult because their intended meanings are not always the same as their literal words. Children must understand the deeper message behind the expression.

Example: "Don't put all your eggs in one basket" means not depending on only one option.

Metalinguistic Competence Cont. What communication functions do proverbs serve?

Proverbs serve five communication functions: commenting, interpreting, advising, warning, and encouraging.

Metalinguistic Competence Cont. How can a supportive linguistic environment help adolescents understand proverbs?

When parents and other people explain proverbs and discuss their meanings, adolescents have more opportunities to understand the messages behind them.

Metalinguistic Competence Cont. What is the relationship between understanding proverbs and academic achievement?

A: Understanding proverbs is correlated with success in mathematics and literature.

Phonology/ Morphology: What is morphophonemic development?

The interaction between morphological and phonological development. It explains how adding meaningful parts to words can affect their pronunciation.

Phonology/ Morphology: How can adding an ending to a word change its pronunciation?

The sound of an ending can change depending on the phoneme that comes before it.

Example: The plural -s is pronounced differently in cats (/s/), dogs (/z/), and buses (/ɪz/).

Phonology/ Morphology: What happens to vowel sounds when a suffix is added?

Adding a suffix can cause the vowel sound in the original word to shift or change its pronunciation.

Example: Sign → Signature.

Phonology/ Morphology: How can stress and emphasis distinguish phrases from compound words?

The placement of stress helps distinguish the meaning of a phrase from a compound word.

Example:

• GREENhouse = A structure where plants grow.

• Green HOUSE = A house that is green.

Phonology/ Morphology: What are the three examples of morphophonemic development discussed in the slide?

1. Sound modifications when joining certain phonemes.

2. Vowel shifting with the addition of a suffix.

3. Using stress and emphasis to distinguish phrases from compound words.

Semantics: What is lexical development?

The growth and development of vocabulary, including learning new words and understanding their meanings.

Semantics: Approximately how many words is a person's vocabulary by high school graduation?

About 60,000 words. Children's vocabulary continues growing throughout their school years as they gain exposure to new words.

Semantics: At what age do children begin using dictionaries to learn word meanings?

A: Around second grade. Children begin using dictionaries to look up unfamiliar words and understand their definitions.

Semantics: What is contextual abstraction?

Using context clues in spoken and written language to figure out the meanings of unfamiliar words without necessarily looking them up.

Semantics: How do context clues help children understand unfamiliar words?

Children use the surrounding words and information in a sentence to figure out what an unfamiliar word means.

Example: "The enormous elephant was much bigger than the other animals." The words "much bigger" help explain enormous.

Semantics: What does understanding multiple meanings of words mean?

Recognizing that one word can have more than one meaning depending on how it is used in a sentence or situation.

Semantics: What does it mean to provide multiple definitions for words with similar meanings?

Being able to explain different but related meanings of the same word.

Example: "Bright" can describe a light or an intelligent person.

Semantics: Why do children have difficulty understanding some secondary meanings of words?

Because some secondary meanings have little or no relationship to the primary meaning, making them harder to recognize.

Example: "Bank" can mean a place for money or the side of a river.

Semantics: What two types of knowledge are required to understand multiple meanings?

Lexical knowledge and metalinguistic knowledge.

Semantics: What is lexical knowledge?

Knowledge of vocabulary and the meanings of words. It helps children recognize what words mean in different situations.

Semantics: What is metalinguistic knowledge?

The ability to think about and analyze language, including recognizing that words can have different meanings.

Semantics: What is lexical ambiguity?

When a word or phrase has multiple meanings, depending on how it is used in a sentence or situation.

Semantics: What are homophones?

Words that sound alike but have different meanings. If they are spelled differently, they are called heterographs.

Example: Flower and flour.

Semantics: What are homographs?

Words that are spelled the same but have different meanings. If they are pronounced differently, they are called heteronyms or heterophones.

Example: Tear (from your eye) and tear (to rip).

Semantics: What are homonyms?

Words that have the same spelling and pronunciation but differ in meaning.

Example: Bat (an animal) and bat (used in baseball).

Semantics: What is the difference between homophones, homographs, and homonyms?

• Homophones: Sound the same but have different meanings.

• Homographs: Spelled the same but have different meanings.

• Homonyms: Same spelling and pronunciation but different meanings

Semantics: What are heterographs?

Words that sound the same but are spelled differently and have different meanings.

Example: There and their.

Semantics: What are heteronyms or heterophones?

Words that are spelled the same but pronounced differently and have different meanings.

Example: Lead (to guide) and lead (the metal).

Semantics/ Pragmatics Where is lexical ambiguity commonly used?

Lexical ambiguity is used in jokes, riddles, comic strips, newspaper headlines, bumper stickers, and advertisements. These forms of communication use words with multiple meanings to create humor, clever messages, or different interpretations.

Semantics/ Pragmatics Why is lexical ambiguity used in jokes, riddles, and advertisements?

Because words with multiple meanings can create humor, make messages interesting, and allow people to interpret expressions in different ways.