Lecture 2. Sources of Information and the Theory-Data Cycle (research methods flashcards)

What is empiricism?

Empiricism uses the scientific method to draw conclusions based on evidence from the senses.

What is experience as a source of information?

Experience is relying on personal experience as evidence.

What is intuition as a source of information?

Intuition is relying on reasoning or logic as evidence.

What is authority as a source of information?

Authority is relying on information from an authority figure as evidence.

What are the three non-empirical sources of information discussed in the lecture?

Experience, intuition, and authority.

Why do people tend to use experience, intuition, and authority?

These methods tend to require less effort than empirical methods, although they are less accurate.

What is a comparison group?

A comparison group provides a basis for comparing outcomes in research.

What is one limitation of experience related to comparison groups?

Experience has no comparison group.

Why can't we re-experience specific events?

We cannot re-experience specific events, so we can only observe the outcome with or without a variable, not both.

What does it mean for an event to be confounded?

Events are confounded when they have alternative explanations that cannot be distinguished from other potential causes.

What does it mean that experience is not probabilistic?

Experiencing uncommon events biases us to believe that those events are more likely to occur than they really are.

What is the availability heuristic?

A mental shortcut that bases decisions on information that comes immediately to mind, assuming easily recalled information is more important than information that is more difficult to recall.

What is confirmation bias?

People tend to ask questions that would confirm their hypothesis rather than questions that would disconfirm it.

What is the bias blind spot?

The belief that you are unlikely to be affected by cognitive biases, even when recognizing that they occur in other people.

What is one limitation of authority?

Authorities are also susceptible to the limitations of intuition and experience.

Why can information from authorities be limited?

Unless the authority gained the information through the empirical method, it may be influenced by the limitations of previous sources.

Can authorities provide false information?

Yes. Authorities may provide false information either intentionally or unintentionally.

Why might an authority provide false information unintentionally?

People can make mistakes when relaying information.

Why might an authority provide false information intentionally?

An authority may purposely intend to deceive.

What is empirical research?

Empirical research is a superior source of information because it avoids the limitations of the other sources.

What are four advantages of empirical research mentioned in the lecture?

Research has a comparison group, is not confounded, is probabilistic, and avoids bias.

What is a limitation of empiricism?

The time, effort, and knowledge required to reach conclusions.

Why must empirical research be conducted carefully?

It must be conducted carefully to avoid various problems that might limit its accuracy.

What is the theory-data cycle?

The use of empirical research to test, change, or update existing theories.

What are the two steps used to determine the accuracy of a theory?

Generating a hypothesis and collecting data to test the hypothesis.

What is a theory?

A set of statements describing the general principles about how variables are related to one another.

What is a hypothesis?

A prediction about the specific outcome of a research study assuming the theory is accurate.

What is data?

A set of observations collected to test a hypothesis.

What happens if data support a hypothesis?

Confidence in the theory increases.

What happens if data are inconsistent with a hypothesis?

It suggests that the theory may require revision.

What is the weight of the evidence?

The idea that theories are evaluated based on the combined outcomes of many studies rather than a single study.

Can a single study prove or disprove a theory?

In general, no. A single study cannot prove or disprove a theory.

What terminology should be used instead of saying a study "proves" a theory?

We say that data "support" or "are consistent with" a theory.

How are theories evaluated?

Theories are evaluated based on the combined outcomes of many studies.

What is the difference between a theory and a hypothesis in terms of specificity?

A theory explains the general relationship between variables, while a hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a particular set of circumstances.

What is the difference between a theory and a hypothesis in terms of support?

A theory has been extensively tested and is generally accepted, while a hypothesis is an untested prediction.

What does it mean for a theory to be supported by data?

A good theory is supported by a large quantity and wide variety of evidence.

What is falsifiability?

A theory must lead to hypotheses that could fail to support the theory.

What is parsimony?

All other things being equal, the simplest solution is the best.

What are three features of good theories?

Good theories are supported by data, falsifiable, and parsimonious.

What does "supported by data" mean as a feature of a good theory?

A good theory is supported by a large quantity and wide variety of evidence.

What does falsifiability require of a theory?

The theory must lead to hypotheses that could fail to support the theory.

What does parsimony require?

All other things being equal, the simplest solution is the best.

Someone buys an X brand phone and it breaks after one month. They decide they no longer trust X brand products. What source of information are they relying on?

Experience, because they are relying on personal experience as evidence.

Someone had a female pilot with a Jamaican accent and experienced no turbulence. They conclude that Jamaican women are skilled pilots. What source of information are they relying on?

Experience.

Someone chooses a particular driving route because they assume traffic will be better at that time of day without checking GPS. What source of information are they relying on?

Intuition.

Someone believes that having more money would make people happier because that seems logical to them. What source of information are they relying on?

Intuition.

A person believes a claim because a respected authority figure told them it was true. What source of information are they relying on?

Authority.

A doctor gives someone information that they personally learned through an empirical study. Is the information necessarily subject to the same limitation as information based only on intuition or experience?

Not necessarily. The lecture states that unless the authority gained the information through the empirical method, it may be influenced by the limitations of intuition and experience.

A famous expert makes a claim, but they did not obtain their information through empirical research. What limitation may apply?

The information may be influenced by the limitations of intuition or experience.

A researcher studies an outcome but has no group to compare it to. What limitation is the researcher trying to avoid?

The limitation of having no comparison group.

A person experiences an unusual event once and concludes that the event must happen frequently. What limitation of experience does this demonstrate?

The fact that experience is not probabilistic.

Someone sees a very memorable event repeatedly in the news and begins believing it is more common than it actually is. Which cognitive bias from the lecture does this resemble?

The availability heuristic.

Someone only asks questions that could confirm their hypothesis and avoids questions that might contradict it. What bias does this demonstrate?

Confirmation bias.

Someone recognizes that other people can have cognitive biases but believes they personally are unlikely to be affected by them. What bias does this demonstrate?

Bias blind spot.

A person claims that because they personally experienced something, there cannot be another explanation for what happened. What limitation of experience does this illustrate?

Confounding, because events can have alternative explanations that cannot be distinguished from other potential causes.

A researcher uses empirical research and includes a comparison group. Which limitation of experience is the comparison group helping address?

The lack of a comparison group.

A researcher conducts empirical research and finds that the data do not support the hypothesis. What might this suggest about the theory?

The theory may require revision.

A researcher conducts a study and finds that the data support the hypothesis. What happens to confidence in the theory?

Confidence in the theory increases.

A researcher wants to use evidence to test an existing theory. What process are they participating in?

The theory-data cycle.

A researcher first generates a specific prediction from a theory and then collects observations to test it. What two steps of determining theory accuracy are being used?

Generating a hypothesis and collecting data to test the hypothesis.

A theory states a general relationship between variables. A researcher then predicts a specific outcome that should occur under certain circumstances. What is the prediction called?

A hypothesis.

A researcher collects observations to determine whether a prediction is correct. What are those observations called?

Data.

A single study produces results consistent with a theory. Can the researcher say that the theory has been proven?

No. A single study cannot generally prove or disprove a theory. The data can support or be consistent with the theory.

Several studies produce results consistent with the same theory. What should happen to confidence in the theory?

The combined evidence can increase confidence in the theory.

A theory has been tested by many studies and is generally accepted, while a hypothesis has not yet been tested. Which is which?

The extensively tested and generally accepted explanation is the theory; the untested prediction is the hypothesis.

A theory explains a general relationship between variables, while a researcher predicts a specific outcome in one study. What is the distinction?

The theory explains the general relationship, while the hypothesis makes the specific prediction.

A theory cannot produce any hypothesis that could potentially fail to support it. Which feature of a good theory is missing?

Falsifiability.

A researcher chooses between two explanations that work equally well and selects the simpler one. Which feature of a good theory does this reflect?

Parsimony.

A theory is supported by a large quantity and wide variety of evidence. Which feature of a good theory does this demonstrate?

Supported by data.

A researcher says, 'My theory is true because there is no possible result that could contradict it.' Is this a feature of a good theory?

No. A good theory must be falsifiable, meaning it must lead to hypotheses that could fail to support the theory.

A person believes an unlikely event is very common because they personally experienced it. Which limitation of experience is involved?

Not probabilistic.

A researcher wants to distinguish whether an outcome was caused by one variable or by another possible cause. Which problem should they be concerned about?

Confounding.

A researcher wants to minimize the limitations of intuition, experience, and authority. What source of information should they use?

Empirical research.