Research Methods Content

Why is high control a strength of laboratory experiments

Researchers can control extraneous variables, making it more likely that changes in the DV are caused by the IV and this increases internal validity

Why are laboratory experiments easier to replicate

Controlled conditions and standardised procedures allow researchers to repeat the experiment consistently and check the reliability of findings

Why can low mundane realism be a limitations of lab experiments

Artificial tasks may not reflect everyday behaviour, so finings may be less generalisable to real-life situations, reducing external validity

Why are demand characteristics a limitation of lab experiments

Participants may realise they are being studies and guess the aim, causing them to change their behaviour and reducing validity.

Must lab experiments take place in a scientific laboratory

No, it can take place anywhere, provided the researcher manipulates the IV highly controlled conditions

Why is greater mundane realism a strength of field experiments

They take place in natural settings, so behaviour may be more authentic and findings more generalisable to everyday situations, increasing external validity

Why may field experiments have fewer demand characteristics

Participants may be less aware they are being studies, reducing the likelihood of changing their behaviour to match the perceived aims

Why is reduced control a limitations of field experiments

Extraneous variables may influence the DV, making it harder to establish a clear cause-and -effect relationship between IV and DV

Why are field experiments more difficult to replicate

Researchers have less control over natural environments, making it difficult to reproduce exactly the same conditions

What ethical issues may arise in field experiments

Participants may be unaware they are being studies, raising issues such as lack of informed consent and invasion of privacy

Why are natural experiments useful for studying certain variables

They allow researchers to investigate naturally occurring events or variables that would be unethical or impractical to manipulate

Why can natural experiments have high external validity

They may investigate real-world events, so behaviour cane reflect everyday experiences and findings may generalise to real-life situations

Why can natural experiments be difficult to replicate

Naturally occurring events may be rare or unpredictable, making it difficult to repeat the research under comparable conditions

Why is establishing a cause-and -effect difficult in natural experiments

The reseracher does not manipulate the IV, so uncontrolled variables may provide alternative explanations for changes in the DV

Does a natural experiments have to take place in a natural setting

No, the term natural refers to the naturally occurring IV, not the locations. It can take place in a lab or field setting

Why are quasi-experiments useful for investigating pre-existing differences

They allow researchers to investigate characteristics such as age that cannot be deliberately manipulated

Why can quasi-experiments be easier to replicate

They may take place under controlled conditions using standardised procedures , allowing the research to be repeated

Why cant participants be randomly allocated in quasi-experiments

Participants already possess the characteristics defining their condition, so the researcher cannot randomly assign them to IV conditions

Why are participant variables a limitation of quasi experiments

Groups may differ in characteristics other than the IV, providing alternative explanations for differences in the DV and reducing internal validity

Why is establishing cause and effect difficult in quasi-experiments

The IV is not deliberately manipulates, and pre existing differences between groups may influence the DV

What is the main difference between lab and field experiments

Both involve deliberate manipulation of the IV, but lab experiments use highly controlled conditions, whereas field experiments occur in natural settings

What is the main difference between natural and quasi-experiments

Natural experiments involve naturally occurring changes in the IV, whereas quasi involve pre-existing differences between participants

Which experimental methods involve deliberately manipulation of the IV

Lab and field experiments, natural and quasi experiments do not involve deliberate manipulation of the IV

Why is random allocation not possible in quasi experiments

The IV is pre-existing participant characteristics, so participants cannot be randomly assigned to conditions

How can you identify the experimental method in an exam scenario

Check whether the researcher manipulated the IV, whether it is a pre existing differences between participants or natural event, and whether the setting is controlled or natural

How should you develop a strength to limitations in an exam answer

Identify the methodological feature, explain its effect on validity, reliability or control and link it to the findings or the specific scenario

What is the difference between an aim and a hypothesis

An aim states what the reseracher intends to investigate, whereas a hypothesis makes a testable prediction about the expected outcome

What is the difference between an IV and a DV

The IV is a variable manipulated by the researcher, while the DV is the variable measured to investigate the effect of the IV

Why does an IV usually have at least 2 conditions

To allow the researcher to compare the DV across different levels or conditions of the IV

Why must variables be operationalised

Two make then clearly defined and measurable, allow procedures to be replicated and help researchers assess reliability ad validity

How could memory be operationalised as a DV

As the number of words correctly recalled from a list of 20 words after 5 minutes rather than simply stating “memory”

How could caffeine consumption be operationalised as an IV

By specifying two conditions, such as consuming a drink containing 200mg of caffeine or one containing 0mg

Why is operationalisation important when writing hypotheses

It makes the predicted difference or relationship precise and testable by specifying exactly what s measured or manipulated

Why should EVs be controlled

They may influence the DV, making it harder to establish whether the IV caused the observed change and reducing internal validity

Give examples of extraneous variables in a memory experiment

Participants’ existing memory ability, amount of sleep and distractions in the testing environment

When should a directional hypothesis be used

When previous research or theory is concise and provides a clear reason to predict the direction of the different or relationship

When should non-directional hypothesis be used

When there is little previous research/none or existing findings are inconsistent, so there is no clear basis for predicting a direction

What is the difference between directional and non-directional hypotheses

Both predict a difference or relationship, but only a directional hypothesis specifies which way the difference or relationship will go

How do you wrote a directional experimental hypothesis

State the predicted direction and operationalise the IV and DV, identifying which condition is expected to produce a higher or lower result

Give an example of a directional experimental hypothesis

Participants consuming 200mg of caffeine will have a lower mean reaction time in milliseconds than participants consuming 0mg

Give an example of a non-direction experimental hypothesis

THERE WILL BE a difference in mean reaction time in milliseconds between participants consuming 200mg and 0mg of caffeine

Give an example of a null experimental hypothesis

THERE WILL BE NO DIFFERENCE in mean reaction time in milliseconds between participants consuming 200mg and 0mg of caffeine

Why are IV and DV not used in correlation investigations

Neither variable is manipulated by the researcher; instead two co-variables are measured to investigate whether they are related

How does a directional correlation hypothesis from a non-directional one

A directional hypothesis predicts whether the relationship is positive or negative; a non-directional hypothesis predicts a relationship without specifying its direction

Give an example of a directional correlation hypothesis

There will be a positive correlation between hours spent revising and percentage score on a psych test

Give and example of a non-directional correlation hypothesis

There will be a correlation between hours spent revising and percentage score on a psych test

Give an example of a null correlation hypothesis

There will be no correlation between hours spent revising and percentage score on a psych test

What should you check when writing any hypothesis in an exam

Whether the study is experimental or correaltional, whether direction is required, and whether the varibales are clearly operationalised

What is the difference between an experimental and control condition

The experimental condition involves the relevant manipulation of the IV, whereas he control condition provides a baseline for comparison

What are the 3 experimental designs

• independent groups

• Repeated measures

• Matches pairs

Why are order effects not a problem in IGD

Each pps completes only one condition, so their performance can not be affected by practice or fatigue from completing another condition

Why may IGD reduce demand characteristics

Pps experience only 1 contrition, making its harder to guess the study’s aim by comparing different conditions

Why are pps variables a limitation of IGD

Individual differences between groups may influence the DV, providing an alternative explanation for the results and reducing internal validity

Why do independent groups design require more participants

different pps are needed for each condition, so more people must generally be recruited than in repeated measures

How does random allocation help independent help IGD

It reduces the risk of systematic participant differences between conditions making the groups more comparable

How can random allocation be carried out

Pps can be assigned numbers and a random number generator used to allocate them into conditions

Why is controlled pps variables a strength of elevated measures

The same pps complete in every condition, so individual differences remain constant and cannot explain differences between conditions

Why do RMD require fewer pps

The same pps are used in every condition, reducing he number of people who need to be recruited

Why are order effects a limitation of RMD

Completing one condition may influence performance in another through practice, fatigue or boredom, affecting the DV

How do practice and fatigue effect differ

Practice effects improve performance through experience, whereas fatigue effects reduce performance through tiredness, boredom or reduced motivation.

Why can repeated measures in rise demand characteristics

Pps experience all conditions and may notice differences between them, allowing them to work out the study’s aim and alater their behaviour

How does counterbalancing completely eliminate order effects

Pps complete conditions in different orders such as AB and BA, distributing order effects so one condition is not always completed first

Does counterbalancing completely eliminate order effects

No, it helps balancing their influence cross conditions rather than removing them entirely

Why does matching pps reduce participant variables

Pps are matched on relevant characteristics, making the groups more similar and reducing alternative explanations for differences in the DV

Why are order effects not a problem in MPD

Each pps completes only 1 condition, s performance cannot be influences by completing another condition

What is MPD time consuming

Researchers must identify relevant characteristics, assess pps and find suitable matches before allocating them to conditions

Why is matching pps not completely effective

Pps may still be similar on matched characteristics but still differ in other ways which may influence the DV

How should pps be allocated after being matched

One member of each pair should be randomly allocated to each condition to reduce systematic differences between groups

Which experimental design controls pps variables most effectively

Repeated measures , because the same pps complete every condition, keeping individual differences constant

Which experimental design avoid order effects between conditions

Independent groups and matches pairs, because pps complete only 1 condition

Which experimental design is more likely to experience order effects

Repeated measures, because pps complete every condition every condition and may experience practice or fatigue effects

What is the difference between random allocation and counterbalancing

Random allocation assigns pps to conditions by chance, whereas counterbalancing varies the order of conditions to reduce order effects

How can u identify an experimental design in an exam scenario

Checkl whether different pps complete each condition, the same pps complete all conditions, or pps are matched into pairs

Why should researchers control extraneous variables

EVs may affect the DV, making it difficult to establish whether the IV caused the results and reducing internal validity

How can pps variables affect experimental results

Individual differences may influence the DV and provide alternative explanations for differences between conditions

How can pps variables be controlled

Using repeated measures keeps individual differences constant, while patched pairs and random allocation helps reduce differences between groups

How can situational variables affect experimental results

Differences in teh environment, such as noise and temperature, may influence participants’ performance and affect the DV

How can situational variables be controlled

Through standardisation, ensuring pps experience the same instruction, procedures and environmental conditions wherever possible

How does randomisation reduce bias

Using chance to determine aspects of the procedure prevents the researcher from systematically favouring a particular order or outcome

Give an example of randomisation in an experiment

A researcher could use a random number generator to determine the order in which stimuli are presented

What is the difference between randomisation and random allocation

Randomisation uses chance to determine aspects of a procedure, whereas random allocation uses chance to assigns pps to experimental conditions

Why does standardisation improve internal validity

Keeping procedures and instructions consistent reduces the likelihood that unintended differences influence the DV

Why does standardisation improve reliability

Standardised procedures make the experiment easier to replicate, allowing researchers to check whether consistent finds are produced

Why are control groups used in experiments

They provide a baseline for comparison, helping researchers to assess whether differences in the DV are associated with the manipulation of the IV

How can a placebo be used in a control group

Pps may recover an inactive treatment that resembles the real treatment, helping control for the effects of pps expectations

How can demand characteristics affect validity

Pps may chnage their behaviour after guessing the study’s aim, meaning the DV may not reflect their genuine responses

What is the please-U affect

Pps deliberately behave in ways they believe will support the researchers hypothesis or please the researcher

What is the screw-U affect

Pps deliberately behave in ways they believe will contradict the researcher’s hypothesis

How can single blind procedure reduce demand characteristics

Keeping pps unaware of their assigned condition can reduce expectations that might otherwise influence their behaviour

How can investigator effects influence research findings

A researcher’s expectations, tone of voice or body language may unintentionally influence participants’ responses, reducing validity

How can investigator effects be reduced

Researchers can use standardised instructions and double-blind procedures to reduce the influence of their expectations on the pps

Why is double blind procedure useful

It reduces both pps expectation effects and investigator effects because neither pps not the administering researcher knows conditioning allocation

How can uncontrolled extraneous variables reduce internal validity

They provide alternative explanations for changes in the DV, making it harder to establish a cause-and-effect relationship

How can low mundane realism affect external validity

Artificial tasks may not reflect everyday behaviour, so finings may be less generalisable to real-life settings

How can order affect be controlled

Through counterbalancing, where pps complete conditions in different -orders, distributing practice and fatigue effects across conditions

How should you explain a control technique in an exam scenario

Identify the rel;vent extraneous variables reduce internal, describe a suitable control technique and explain how it prevents the variable from affecting the DV