social psych exam 1

What are some definitions of social psychology? 

The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to others.

What are three key elements of the scientific process? What is the cold read, and how does it relate to the concept of unfalsifiable statements?

1. Systematic observations

2. Public knowledge

3. Examination of solvable problems

Cold read: Everyone was initially looking for answers, and when they were given universal ones, they began to believe they were meant for them. 

When you're told something by someone, you tend to shape that thought and start to believe it, whether it is completely accurate or not.

Give an example of how many psychological and educational interventions are not put to the scientific test.

Critical Incident Stress Debriefing- a structured, facilitator-led group discussion held after a traumatic event to help people process stress and reduce acute psychological symptoms

 What are the two most fundamental ways that people misinterpret correlations? Be able to apply each to a provided example (just like you did in class).  Potential Essay Item

1. Directionality problem

   1. Studies have shown that elderly people who engage with technology do better on cognitive tests. However, elderly people who are seeking to learn how to use technology may actually just be more motivated and curious

2. Third variable possibility

   1. Studies have shown that the more books that are in a child’s home, the better they perform academically. However, if a kid is reading and does better academically, they might want to continue reading and get more books.

 What are the three criteria needed to be met to make cause-and-effect statements? How do true experiments help to meet these criteria?

1. Covariance

2. Temporal precedence → directionality

3. Internal validity → third variable

Know the difference between a correlational and an experimental study.

Correlational: a non-experimental scientific method used to measure two or more variables and assess the statistical relationship between them without manipulating any variables

Experimental: random assignment, scientist actively introduces an intervention or treatment to test a cause-and-effect relationship

What is the difference between a manipulated and a selected independent variable?

Manipulated variable: the experimenter actively controls, sets, or changes the levels of this variable

Selected independent variable: this factor already exists in the participants or environment. The researcher selects groups based on these traits rather than assigning them

What are the three main types of validity when examining a study? Give an example of each.

1. Internal validity: Can we make cause-and-effect statements? Random assignment. No confounding variables

2. Construct validity: accuracy of measurements and manipulation

3. External validity: generalizability of results

What is a quasi-experiment?

Participants are not randomly assigned to conditions

What is the “replication crisis” in social psychology? Be able to provide some arguments on both sides of this controversy.  Potential Essay Item

The replication crisis is the worry that many psychological studies cannot be exactly replicated. This is making scientists and civilians question whether or not these initial studies were valid or not. 

Yes problem arguments:

1. One of the most reliable findings in psychology is that only half of the studies can be repeated

2. A claim becomes credible by being reproducible

3. It is easy for researchers to collect, analyze, and report data and make it appear to be meaningful when it’s really not.

No problem arguments:

1. Successful replications strengthen findings. Failed replications root out false claims and help refine imprecise ones- opportunity to gain more evidence

2. Human behavior varies across contexts

3. Sometimes the very thing you're studying in changing, so exact replications aren't possible. 

 

What are the three key areas of the self? Give examples of each.

1. Self knowledge

Info about self, self-esteem, self-deception

2. Interpersonal self

Self-presentation, member of groups, social roles

3. Agent self

Decision making

What is the planning fallacy?

Tendency to underestimate how long it will take to complete a task.

 Give examples of: affective forecasting, impact bias, psychological immune system, and synthetic happiness (from Daniel Gilbert’s TED talk on Happiness). Potential Essay Item

1. Impact bias is when people overestimate how much impact their emotions will have, as well as the duration of those emotions. One example is when someone ends a relationship and believes that it is going to be worse than it actually ends up being.

2. We underestimate how well we can get through an emotion. The immune system is how we deal with our emotions. An example of this could be finding meaning in going paralyzed.

3. Synthetic happiness is “fake” joy that we create out of the conditions we’re in and what we get, even if it’s not what we wanted.

What were some problems with the self-esteem movement in schools (video on self-esteem)?

One problem was that students may become too confident and self-righteous. Also, teaching kids how to love themselves too much takes away the opportunity to love others, which is arguably more important. 

 Describe Carol Dweck’s research on the type of praise and future performance. How does it relate to the type of praise given in self-esteem programs?

Carol Dweck’s research shows that person/intelligence praise harms future motivation and performance, whereas process/effort praise builds resilience and success.

 What have Bushman & Baumeister found regarding high self-esteem and aggressive behavior? Describe their study. How did they measure high self-esteem?

Brad Bushman and Roy Baumeister found that simple high self-esteem alone does not cause aggression, but the combination of high self-esteem and high narcissism—especially when a person is insulted or provoked—leads to the highest levels of aggressive behavior

What is the sociometer theory of self-esteem? What evidence is there that it is the better theory for describing self-esteem?

A psychological meter that monitors the quality of people's relationships with others. 

 What is the confirmation bias? Provide some examples from the video you watched

eager to verify our beliefs, less inclined to disprove them 

What are some examples of overconfidence? What are some remedies for overconfidence?

Unaware of our errors.

Remedies:

• Give prompt feedback to explain why statement is incorrect

• For planning fallacy, ask one to unpack a task

• Get people to think of one good reason why their judgements might be wrong. 

Provide some examples of the availability heuristics.

Thinking sharks kill more people than mosquitoes

Give an example of the fundamental attribution error (also called the correspondence bias). How does the fundamental attribution error relate to the Milgram Obedience experiments?

If a coworker arrives late, you assume they are lazy and disorganized. If you arrive late, you blame heavy traffic or a broken alarm clock.

This relates to the Milgram Obedience experiments because the subjects thought it was terrible for the authoritative to tell them to shock the person, but the subjects were the ones doing the actual shocking. But they didn't think it was as bad because they weren't the ones choosing to do it. 

 

Compare and contrast Sherif’s and Asch’s studies of conformity. Which is an example of normative influence, and which is an example of informational influence?

Sherif’s study: informational influence

Asch’s study: normative influence

What predicts conformity?

• Group size

• Unanimity

• Cohesion

• Status

• Public response

• Prior commitment

What are some examples of social contagion? What are some causes for yawning contagion?

Yawning or laughing when others do

Social media trends like ALS ice bucket challenge

Causes for yawning contagion: mirror neurons, empathy and social bonding, and group synchronization.

What situations are more likely to induce conformity?

Personality, culture, and social roles

Be able to describe the basic aspects of the original Milgram experiment.

The Task: The teacher read word-pair associations to the learner. If the learner gave an incorrect answer, the teacher was ordered to administer an electric shock. 

The Shock Generator: The teacher sat in front of an instrument panel with 30 switches ranging from 15 volts up to 450 volts. The switches were labeled with descriptions ranging from "Slight Shock" to "Danger: Severe Shock" and finally an ominous "XXX". 

Escalation and Deception: With every wrong answer, the teacher was instructed to increase the voltage by 15 volts. No actual shocks were delivered, but the actor played pre-recorded audio tapes of simulated distress, pounding on the wall, crying out in pain, and eventually falling completely silent. 

The Prods: If the teacher hesitated or asked to stop, the experimenter used a series of firm, standardized verbal prods to push them to continue, such as "Please continue," "The experiment requires that you continue,"

  What were the conditions of obedience that Milgram found?

He found that 65% of participants delivered the maximum 450-volt shock in his baseline condition, demonstrating a high rate of destructive obedience to authority

Why did Milgram conduct the obedience experiments?

to understand how ordinary people could be influenced by an authority figure to commit harmful acts against others

What did the “teacher” Herbert Winer say was important about how Milgram conducted the obedience experiment?

The subject has to be placed in the context rather than just being asked about it. Then, when the subject started with only a 15 volt shock, there was a more powerful influence when the voltage grew.

How does the foot-in-the-door phenomenon relate to the Obedience Experiments?

When a person starts with a small task or punishment, it doesn't seem as bad when that task or punishment grows. This happens a lot with sin. 

What are the major arguments for Baumrind and Milgram regarding the ethics of Milgram’s Obedience experiments? Should these studies have been conducted? Why or why not? Potential Essay Item

1. After the study, efforts were made to ensure the participants left in a state of well-being

2. By volunteering, participants can assume their security will be protected

3. Participants didnt assume responsibility of the shock, so it didnt harm their self-esteem.

I do not think these studies should have been conducted. The study was not ethical in my opinion, and it was not necessary to go to those lengths just to learn as little as we did.

Compare and contrast Milgram’s Obedience experiments and Zimbardo’s Stanford prison experiment. Also, compare and contrast Milgram and Zimbardo. Potential Essay Item

Similarities: both were putting subjects in the position to obey authority. Both had ethical issues. 

Differences: Milgram did multiple studies, but Zimbardo couldn't replicate his. Milgram’s is a lot more ethically sound. Zimbardo was part of his study, Milgram was not. Length of study was different: Zimbardo's was 6 days, Milgram’s was 1 hour. 

What are some differences between propaganda and education?

The flexibility of language determines the difference.

What is persuasion?

The process by which a message induces change in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors.

What are the two message routes of persuasion (Petty & Cacioppo)? Give an example of each.

1. Central: focusing on the arguments

   1. A car buyer reads a detailed advertisement listing a vehicle's crash-test ratings, verified fuel economy statistics, and specific warranty data

2. Peripheral: focusing on cues that trigger acceptance

   1. Buying a brand of perfume or sneakers just because a famous athlete or actor is in the commercial

 Describe and give examples for the six principles that elicit our compliance (Cialdini; there is a lot here in this item).

1. Commitment (foot in the door)

   1. Agree first with a small request and comply later with a large request

2. Scarcity (limited time offer)

   1. Items perceived to be scarce are more valued

3. Authority 

   1. Credibility

4. Reciprocity

   1. I give something, you give me something in return

5. Liking (Q-ratings)

   1. Attractiveness and liking

   2. Promoting a cologne using an actor or athlete 

6. Consensus

   1. “Best-selling truck on the road”

 Give examples for the following: Foot-in-the-door phenomenon, door-in-the-face tactic, and the low-ball technique.

1. Foot in the door

   1. A person asks you to watch their dog, then they later convince you to walk, feed, and bathe the dog too.

2. Door in the face

   1. A person asks you to pay for all of their groceries, but you say no. Then they ask you to pay for just the fruit. You feel like that’s a better deal than paying for everything, so you say yes.

3. Low ball

   1. A car salesperson tells you a car costs $20,000, and you agree to buy it. After you’ve decided to purchase it, the salesperson tells you there are additional fees, making the final price $23,000. You still decide to buy it because you already committed to the purchase.

What are Q-ratings, and which principle of persuasion is it related to?

Q-ratings is a score given to a person or item regarding their popularity and appeal. It is related to liking. 

What are three key elements of a cult? What questions help to evaluate whether a group is a cult? What would distinguish your church from a cult? Potential Essay Item

1. Charismatic leader- guru becomes worshiped rather than a guiding religious principle

2. Systematic indoctrination- distinctive rituals and beliefs related to its devotion to a god or person

3. Heavy exploitation from leader- usually financial and sexual. 

Questions: 

1. Are alternatives being taken away?

2. Is one’s access to new and different information being taken away?

3. Is the individual’s personal responsibility and control being suppressed by the group or leader?

What distinguishes my church from a cult?

1. No exploitation

2. Worshiping Jesus, not the pastor or “leader” of the church

3. Have the ability to leave if you want to

Podcast: Win hearts, then minds. What is moral reframing? How does it relate to persuasion? Provide an example.

Moral reframing is when one reframes their argument around their intended audience's values in order to better resonate with them and persuade them. For example, if a person knew that the other person had moral convictions or values about the topic, that person could use those morals to better persuade. 

Example: Giving liberals an argument about increased military spending and focusing the argument on values such as equality and social justice rather than patriotism and border protection.