the effects of labelling

• Labelling theorists are interested in the effects of labelling upon those who are labelled.

• They claim that, by labelling certain people as criminal or deviant, - what happens?

• Labelling theorists are interested in the effects of labelling upon those who are labelled.

• They claim that, by labelling certain people as criminal or deviant, society actually encourages them to become more so.

Primary and secondary deviance ➜ primary deviance

• L_____ (1951) distinguishes between primary and secondary deviance.

• what does Primary deviance refer?

• L____ argues that it is pointless to seek the causes of primary deviance, _ why?

• These acts are not part of an o____ d___ w___ of l____, so offenders can easily r____ them away, for example as a 'moment of madness'.

• They have little significance for the what. In short, primary deviants don't generally see themselves as d___.

Primary and secondary deviance ➜ primary deviance

• Lemert (1951) distinguishes between primary and secondary deviance.

• Primary deviance refers to deviant acts that have not been publicly labelled.

• Lemert argues that it is pointless to seek the causes of primary deviance, since it is so widespread that it is unlikely to have a single cause, and in any case it is often trivial, e.g. fare dodging, and mostly goes uncaught.

• These acts are not part of an organised deviant way of life, so offenders can easily rationalise them away, for example as a 'moment of madness'.

• They have little significance for the individual's status or self-concept. In short, primary deviants don't generally see themselves as deviant.

Primary and secondary deviance ➜ secondary deviance and master status

However, some deviance is labelled

• Secondary deviance is the result of societal reaction of labelling. Being caught and publicly labelled as a criminal can involve being stigmatised, shamed, humiliated, shunned or excluded from normal society.

• Once an individual is labelled, others may come to see them only in terms of the label.

• This becomes their master status or controlling identity, this means it overrides all other identities . In the eyes of the world, they are no longer a colleague, parent or neighbour; they are now a thief, junkie or pedophile - an outsider.

• This can provoke a crisis for the individual's self-concept or sense of identity.

• One way to resolve this crisis is for the individual to accept the deviant label and see themselves as the world sees them.

• In turn, this may lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, in which the individual acts out or lives up to their deviant label, thereby becoming what the label says they are.

• Lemert refers to the further deviance that results from acting out the label as secondary deviance.

Primary and secondary deviance ➜ secondary deviance and master status

However, some deviance is labelled

• what is secondary deviance?

• Once an individual is labelled, others may come to see them only in terms of the ___.

• This becomes their master status or controlling identity, explain what this means? i

• This can provoke a c____ for the individual's s____-c____ or s___ of i____.

• One way to resolve this crisis is what?

• In turn, this may lead to a s____-f_____ p____, in which the individual an____ out or l___ up to their deviant label, thereby becoming what the label says they are.

• Lemert refers to the further deviance that results from acting out the label as s____ d_____.

Primary and secondary deviance ➜ secondary deviance and Deviant career

• Secondary deviance is likely to provoke f____ h____ reactions from society and reinforce what?

• Again, this in turn may lead to more d____ and a d career.

• For example, ex-convicts find it hard to go straight because no one will e_____ them, so they seek out other o____ for s___.

• This may involve joining a d____ s____ that offers d_____ c____ o____ and r____ m____, r____ deviant behaviour, and c____ their deviant identity.

Primary and secondary deviance ➜ secondary deviance and Deviant career

• Secondary deviance is likely to provoke further hostile reactions from society and reinforce the deviant's 'outsider' status.

• Again, this in turn may lead to more deviance and a deviant career.

• For example, ex-convicts find it hard to go straight because no one will employ them, so they seek out other outsiders for support.

• This may involve joining a deviant subculture that offers deviant career opportunities and role models, rewards deviant behaviour, and confirms their deviant identity.

Primary and secondary deviance

• Y____ (1971) uses the concepts of secondary deviance and deviant career in his study of h___ m____ users in N___ H___ .

• Initially, drugs were peripheral __ (what does this mean?) to the h_____' lifestyle - an example of primary deviance.

• However, what led to the h____ increasingly to see themselves as o____?.

• They retreated into c____ groups where they began to develop a d____ s____, wearing l____ h____ and more 'w___ out' clothes.

• Drug use became a c____ a____, attracting further a____ from the police and creating a s____-f____ p____.

Primary and secondary deviance

• Young (1971) uses the concepts of secondary deviance and deviant career in his study of hippy marijuana users in Notting Hill.

• Initially, drugs were peripheral( drug use was only a small, minor part of their lives at first) to the hippies' lifestyle - an example of primary deviance.

• However, persecution and labelling by the control culture (the police) led the hippies increasingly to see themselves as outsiders.

• They retreated into closed groups where they began to develop a deviant subculture, wearing longer hair and more 'way out' clothes.

• Drug use became a central activity, attracting further attention from the police and creating a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Primary and secondary deviance

• The work of L____ and Y____ illustrates the idea that it is not the act itself, but the what? that creates serious deviance,

• therefore what is ironic about social control processes that are meant to produce law-abiding behaviour ?

Primary and secondary deviance

• The work of Lemert and Young illustrates the idea that it is not the act itself, but the hostile societal reaction to it, that creates serious deviance,

• Ironically, therefore, the social control processes that are meant to produce law-abiding behaviour may in fact produce the very opposite

Primary and secondary deviance

• However, although a deviant career is a common outcome of labelling, labelling theorists are quick to point out what?

• As D____ and R___ (2003) note, we cannot p___ whether someone who has been labelled will follow a deviant career, because they are always f___ to choose n___ to deviate further.

Primary and secondary deviance

• However, although a deviant career is a common outcome of labelling, labelling theorists are quick to point out that it is not inevitable.

• As Downes and Rock (2003) note, we cannot predict whether someone who has been labelled will follow a deviant career, because they are always free to choose not to deviate further.

Evaluation of Young’s explanation of primary and secondary deviance

✘- Fails to explain what?

• Lemert dismisses the causes of the i___ act, but L___ R___ (L___ & Y____) argue this is a major flaw - why?

Evaluation of Young’s explanation of primary and secondary deviance

✘- Fails to explain why people commit primary deviance

• Lemert dismisses the causes of the initial act, but Left Realists (Lea & Young) argue this is a major flaw because we still need to understand structural causes like deprivation, marginalisation and relative deprivation.

Deviance amplification spiral

• The deviance amplification spiral is a term labelling theorists use to describe what.

• This leads to greater attempts to c___^^ it and, in turn, this produces yet higher levels of deviance.

• More and more control produces more and more d____, in an e___ s____, as in the case of the hippies described by Young.

Deviance amplification spiral

• The deviance amplification spiral is a term labelling theorists use to describe a process in which the attempt to control deviance leads to an increase in the level of deviance.

• This leads to greater attempts to control it and, in turn, this produces yet higher levels of deviance.

• More and more control produces more and more deviance, in an escalating spiral, as in the case of the hippies described by Young.

Deviance amplification spiral

• Labelling theorists have applied the concept of the deviance amplification spiral to various forms of g____ b____.

• An example of this is C_____ (1972) F_____ D____ and M____ P____, a study of the societal reaction to the 'm____ and r____' disturbances involving groups of youths at E____ s____ resorts.

• p____ e____ and d____ r____ of the events began a m____ p___, with g___ p___ c____ and with m____ entrepreneurs calling for a 'c____'.

• The police responded by how?, while the c____ imposed h____ p____.

• This seemed to confirm the truth of the original m___ r____ and provoked more p___ concern, in an u____ s____ of deviance amplification.

• At the same time, the d_____ of the m____ and r____ as 'f___ d___' caused their further o____', resulting in more deviant behaviour on their part.

Deviance amplification spiral

• Labelling theorists have applied the concept of the deviance amplification spiral to various forms of group behaviour.

• An example of this is Stanley Cohen's (1972) Folk Devils and Moral Panics, a study of the societal reaction to the 'mods and rockers' disturbances involving groups of youths at English seaside resorts.

• Press exaggeration and distorted reporting of the events began a moral panic, with growing public concern and with moral entrepreneurs calling for a 'crackdown'.

• The police responded by arresting more youths, while the courts imposed harsher penalties.

• This seemed to confirm the truth of the original media reaction and provoked more public concern, in an upward spiral of deviance amplification.

• At the same time, the demonising of the mods and rockers as 'folk devils' caused their further marginalisation as ‘outsiders', resulting in more deviant behaviour on their part.

Deviance amplification spiral

• We can see the deviance amplification spiral as similar to what?

• In both cases, the s____ r____ to an i_____ d_____ act leads not to successful control of the deviance, but to further deviance, which in turn leads t____ l____a greater reaction and so on.

• It also illustrates an important difference between l____ t____ and f_____ t_____ of deviance.

• As L_____ (1967) puts it, these theories: rest heavily on the idea that d_____ leads to s_____ c_____. I have come to believe the r___ i____, i.e. social control leads to deviance.'

Deviance amplification spiral

• We can see the deviance amplification spiral as similar to Lemert's idea of secondary deviance.

• In both cases, the societal reaction to an initial deviant act leads not to successful control of the deviance, but to further deviance, which in turn leads to a greater reaction and so on.

• It also illustrates an important difference between labelling theory and functionalist theories of deviance.

• As Lemert (1967) puts it, these theories: rest heavily on the idea that deviance leads to social control. I have come to believe the reverse idea, i.e. social control leads to deviance.'

Labelling and criminal justice policy

• Studies have shown how increases in the attempt to control and punish young offenders can have the o_____ e_____.

• For example, in the USA, T_____ (20____) notes an i_____ t____ to see y____ o______ as e____ and to be less tolerant of m____ d____

• The criminal justice system has r___-l_____ status offences such as t____ as more serious offences, resulting in much h____ s_____.

• As predicted by Lemert's theory of secondary deviance, this has resulted in what? D___ H____ (2000) notes a similar outcome in Holland as a result of the i____ s_____ of young offenders.

• These findings indicate that labelling theory has important p____ i____.

• They add weight to the argument that negative labelling does what?

• Therefore logically, to reduce deviance, we should do what?

Labelling and criminal justice policy

• Studies have shown how increases in the attempt to control and punish young offenders can have the opposite effect.

• For example, in the USA, Triplett (2000) notes an increasing tendency to see young offenders as evil and to be less tolerant of minor deviance.

• The criminal justice system has re-labelled status offences such as truancy as more serious offences, resulting in much harsher sentences.

• As predicted by Lemert's theory of secondary deviance, this has resulted in an increase rather than a decrease in offending.

• De Haan (2000) notes a similar outcome in Holland as a result of the increasing stigmatisation of young offenders.

• These findings indicate that labelling theory has important policy implications.

• They add weight to the argument that negative labelling pushes offenders towards a deviant career.

Labelling and criminal justice policy

• Therefore logically, to reduce deviance, we should do what?

• For example, by decriminalising what? we might reduce the number of people with c____ c_____ and hence the risk of s____ d______.

• Similarly, labelling theory implies that we should avoid what? since this is likely to create a perception of them as e____ o____ and, by excluding them from m____ society, p___ them into f____ d____.

Labelling and criminal justice policy

• Therefore logically, to reduce deviance, we should make and enforce fewer rules for people to break.

• For example, by decriminalising soft drugs, we might reduce the number of people with criminal convictions and hence the risk of secondary deviance.

• Similarly, labelling theory implies that we should avoid publicly 'naming and shaming' offenders, since this is likely to create a perception of them as evil outsiders and, by excluding them from mainstream society, push them into further deviance.

Reintegrative shaming

Most labelling theorists see labelling as having n____ effects.

However, B_____ (1989) identifies a more positive role for the labelling process.

He distinguishes between two types of shaming (negative labelling): - name both

Reintegrative shaming

Most labelling theorists see labelling as having negative effects. However, John Braithwaite (1989) identifies a more positive role for the labelling process.

He distinguishes between two types of shaming (negative labelling):

• Disintegrative shaming, where not only the crime, but also the criminal, is labelled as bad and the offender is excluded from society

• Reintegrative shaming, by contrast, labels the act but not the actor - as if to say, 'they have done a bad thing', rather than 'they are a bad person.'

Reintegrative shaming

• The policy of reintegrative shaming avoids what? while at the same time making them a____ of the n____ impact of their actions upon others, and then e_____ others to f____ them.

• This makes it easier for both o_____ and c____ to separate the offender from the o____ and r___-a____ the wrongdoer back into m_____ society.

• At the same time, this avoids what?

• B_____ argues that crime rates tend to be lower in what societies?

Reintegrative shaming

• The policy of reintegrative shaming avoids stigmatising the offender as evil while at the same time making them aware of the negative impact of their actions upon others, and then encourages others to forgive them.

• This makes it easier for both offender and community to separate the offender from the offence and re-admit the wrongdoer back into mainstream society.

• At the same time, this avoids pushing them into secondary deviance.

• Braithwaite argues that crime rates tend to be lower in societies where reintegrative rather than disintegrative shaming is the dominant way of dealing with offenders.