Sports Science Test 16/10

Projectile

Refers to the motion of an object that has been projected into the air or dropped and where the only forces acting on it are gravity and air resistance.

Initial Velocity (U or Vₑ)

The speed and direction of an object or an athlete’s body right at the start of a movement, jump, throw, or sprint before acceleration takes over.

Angle of Projection

The direction (relative to the horizontal plane) at which a body or object is launched into the air.

Height of Release

The vertical distance from the ground (or point of landing) to where an object or body leaves a performer’s hand, foot, or equipment.

Optimum Angle for Projection

• If the projection height is above the landing area or target (for example, in shot-put), the optimum projection angle is below 45°

• If the projection height is below the landing area or target (for example, in a basketball free throw), the optimum projection angle is above 45°

• If the projection height is the same as the landing height (for example, a goal kick in football), the optimum angle is 45°

Centre of Mass

The mathematical point around which the mass of a body or object is evenly distributed.

Air Resistance (Drag)

A frictional force that acts in the opposite direction of an athlete or projectile moving through the air.

Effect of Environmental Conditions on Forces Acting on an Object

These environmental conditions include:

• temperature = affects air/water density, but only minimally, as the effects are negligible

• humidity = ↑ humidity → ↓ air density → less drag

• air pressure =  ↑ air pressure / ↓ the distance a projectile will travel

• salinity of water = ↑ salinity/ ↑ buoyancy of the object immersed in the water

• altitude = As altitude increases, air density decreases

Relative Velocity

The velocity of the body with respect to the fluid.

RV = V of object ± V of fluid

Buoyancy

A force acting vertically on objects immersed or partially immersed in a fluid - the upward force a fluid puts on an object sitting in it.

Archimedes’ Principle

States that the buoyant force equals the weight of the fluid the object pushes aside (displaces).

Why Force Opposes the Direction of Motion

Because the motion of the object is trying to push apart the molecules of the fluid.

Surface (Frictional or Skin) Drag

Friction between the fluid and the object’s surface.

Free Stream Velocity

Velocity of the fluid unaffected by the interaction.

Boundary Layer

A thin layer of fluid right next to the surface of a moving object.

Form (Pressure) Drag

The resistance caused by the pressure difference between the front and the back of an object moving through a fluid.

Wake

An area of low pressure at the rear of the object.

Angle of Attack

The angle between the object or body and the travelling direction.

Wave Drag

An opposing force caused by the object making waves in the fluid.

Overall Drag

Overall Drag = Surface drag + form drag + wave drag

Laminar Flow

All molecules moving in the same direction.

Turbulent Flow

Molecules get mixed up.

Lift Force

A force acting perpendicular (at a right angle) to the direction of motion of an object travelling through a fluid. It can act up, down or sideways.

Bernoulli’s Principle

The pressure a fluid exerts on a body moving in it decreases as the fluid's velocity increases.

fast air = low pressure, slow air = high pressure

What Affects Lift

• Shape: Asymmetrical ↑ lift – e.g. aircraft wing, sails

• Angle of attack: ↑ angle ↑ lift (Newton's 3rd law)

• Speed and fluid density

• Surface area (area exposed to the flow)

Positive Lift

The object rises or stays in the air longer than without it.

Negative Lift

Pushes the object down towards the ground – it drops faster than without lift.

Magnus Force

The force on a spinning object moving through a fluid that makes it curve away from its normal flight path.

Personality

The relatively stable and enduring characteristics of individuals that make them unique, but at the same time permit a comparison between each other.

Trait-Based Approach

Assumes that the constituent components of personality (traits) are relatively stable over time.

Personality Trait

An enduring pattern of thoughts, feelings and behaviours that is relatively stable over time.

The Big Five

• Openness to experience

• Conscientiousness

• Extraversion/introversion

• Agreeableness

• Neuroticism / emotional stability

Openness to Experience

How open a person is to new ideas and experiences.

Conscientiousness

How organised, responsible, self-disciplined and goal-directed a person tends to be.

Extraversion / introversion

How outgoing and social a person is.

Agreeableness

How friendly and cooperative a person is.

Neuroticism / emotional stability

How someone experiences and handles emotions; a high scorer worries, gets easily upset, anxious and stressed.

Maturity

With maturity comes more awareness of your own personality.

LOTS

• Lifetime history

• Observations from others

• Tests

• Self-reported information

Lifetime history

Comes from a person's life record and history.

Observations from others

Comes from parents, friends, coaches, teammates.

Tests

Comes from standardised tests and experiments.

Self-reported information

Comes from the person rating themselves.

Perfectionism

Two types of perfectionism:

• Adaptive (positive)

• Maladaptive (negative)

Adaptive Perfectionism

Focuses on high standards, without being overly concerned about making mistakes or what others think of you.

Maladaptive Perfectionism

Focuses on high standards plus concern over making mistakes and concern about what others think of you.

The Interactionist View of Personality

Behaviour is a function of the person (P) and their environment (E):

B = f(P, E)

Cognitive Factors in the Expression of Personality

• Competencies (Skills and knowledge)

• Encoding strategies (How we process information)

• Expectancies (What we expect from behaviour)

• Plans (Intentions)

Genetic Factors

What the code says — which genes exist.

Epigenetic Factors

How the code is used — which genes are active.

Social Learning Theory (SLT)

The process through which individuals acquire new behaviours, attitudes and skills by observing and imitating others. We can learn without reinforcement (positive or negative).

How SLT Relates to Personality

• Competencies and skills: How we are perceived by others is influenced by our own feelings of competence

• Beliefs and expectancies: How well someone is performing their role in a team, and what they think will happen to them in regard to the role they play in the future

• Behavioural standards: Criteria for judging our own actions; we then respond in an emotionally satisfied or dissatisfied way. We evaluate ourselves in our own way

• Personal goals: To improve athletic performance, athletes sometimes need to be made aware of what they’re good at, and helped to identify ways they can maximise potential

Behaviourism

Holds that ongoing behaviour is determined by forces in the environment.

Self-Efficacy

The expectation that people hold regarding their own capabilities for performance. In short, it is confidence towards performance. self-efficacy ↑ → physical performance ↑

Self-Esteem

What you think you are worth.

How to Manipulate Self-Efficacy

1. Performance accomplishments

2. Vicarious experience (VE)

3. Persuasion

4. Physiological state

Performance Accomplishments

• Performance profiling shows how athletes see themselves: a prioritised profile of the current performance self. Looking at the gap to the ideal performance ↑ self-efficacy.

• Goal setting to improve ↑ self-efficacy: types of goals; SMARTER goals; goal difficulty.

Vicarious Experiments (VE)

• Modelling: gaining confidence by watching someone else succeed, rather than doing it yourself.

• + watching high achievers accomplish higher-level goals.

• − Acts of aggression can be repeated, e.g. bullying (Bandura, 1982).

• Methods: peer demonstration, videos, coping modelling.

Persuasion

• Verbal persuasion; it can be an act.

• Use of imagery.

• Like VE, it must come from a credible source.

Physiological State

• Prior to performance → level of arousal (often results in attentional narrowing).

• Attention: concentration, selective attention, coordinating two or more actions at the same time.

Potential for Change in Personality

With the right tools, and by focusing on specific factors, people can alter and influence their own personality. Before this, psychologists need to collect reliable information.

Personality and Health

• Type A personality: Highly competitive, self-critical, ambitious, impatient, aggressive / Health link: prone to stress; prone to developing coronary heart disease

• Type B personality: More tolerant, relaxed, reflective, laid-back, stress-free, more patient.

• Optimism, conscientiousness and openness to experience are cardio-protective.

Research: Friedman & Kern

• Disproved that happiness is a direct cause of good health, and that negative emotion, worry and depression are significant direct causes of disease.

• Challenging work in a demanding environment usually brings long-term health risks.

• Individual striving and dedication are associated with health benefits.

• Conscientiousness → people stay healthier, live longer and thrive.

• General health = longevity.