Psychology Assessment Notes: Research Methods, Variables, and Sampling

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering research methods, experimental variables, hypotheses, observational and self-report designs, sampling techniques, and core evaluative concepts from the psychology assessment notes.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable in psychological research that is directly changed or manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable in an experiment that is being measured by the researcher to assess the outcome.

Controlled Variables

Factors that the researcher deliberately keeps constant and unchanged across experimental conditions.

Extraneous Variable

An unwanted extra factor outside of the independent variable that could accidentally affect the dependent variable.

Confounding Variable

A variable that changes systematically alongside the independent variable and could explain the results instead.

Participant Variable

Individual differences between participants, such as age, personality, or intelligence, that could influence results.

Situational Variable

Features of the experimental environment that could affect participant behaviour, such as temperature or noise level.

Conditions

The different groups or situations that participants experience during an experiment.

Hypothesis

A testable and falsifiable statement based on the expected results of an experiment or observation.

Aim

A formal statement that identifies the overarching purpose of the psychological investigation.

One-Tailed Hypothesis

A directional hypothesis predicting an effect in one specific direction (e.g., predicting children of smokers are more likely to take up smoking).

Two-Tailed Hypothesis

A non-directional hypothesis predicting that an effect will occur in either direction without stating which way.

Null Hypothesis

A hypothesis that predicts no effect or difference between the variables being tested.

Laboratory Experiment

A research method conducted in a controlled environment to test cause-and-effect by deliberately manipulating the independent variable.

Field Experiment

A research method that tests cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating an independent variable in a real-world, natural setting.

Natural Experiment

A study that investigates naturally occurring variables and events in real life without direct manipulation by the researcher.

Demand Characteristics

Clues in an experimental setting that allow participants to guess the study's aim, leading them to alter their normal behaviour.

Ecological Validity

The extent to which research findings reflect natural behaviour in real-life, everyday situations.

Questionnaire

A self-report research technique that gathers data on people's beliefs, attitudes, and opinions using written questions.

Closed-Ended Questions

Questions that provide fixed, pre-determined response options for respondents to choose from.

Dichotomous Questions

Closed-ended questions offering only two fixed answer choices, such as yes/no, true/false, or agree/disagree.

Likert Style

A type of ranking or rating scale question in questionnaires used to assess the strength of attitudes or opinions.

Open-Ended Questions

Questions that do not have pre-set responses, providing space for respondents to answer freely in their own words.

Case Study

An in-depth investigation of an individual, group, event, or community using multiple data sources such as interviews, observations, and psychometric testing.

Data Triangulation

The process of combining and cross-referencing multiple data collection methods to draw valid conclusions in case studies.

Quantitative Data

Information and measurements that are represented numerically.

Qualitative Data

Descriptive, non-numerical information representing concepts, opinions, and meanings.

Interview

A non-experimental research method designed to gather self-reported data from participants by asking them verbal questions.

Structured Interview

An interview format where all participants are asked the exact same standardized list of pre-set questions in identical order.

Unstructured Interview

An interview format that has no pre-set questions prepared, allowing the discussion to progress freely.

Semi-Structured Interview

An interview format that utilizes a framework of pre-set questions while granting flexibility to ask follow-up questions.

Naturalistic Observation

An observational technique conducted in an everyday environment where the target behaviour naturally takes place.

Controlled Observation

An observation carried out in a laboratory or structured setting where specific conditions are set up to encourage the behaviour.

Overt Observation

An observational study conducted openly with the full awareness and knowledge of the participants.

Covert Observation

An observational study conducted secretly without the participants knowing they are being observed.

Participant Observation

An observational method where the researcher actively joins and becomes involved with the group being studied.

Non-Participant Observation

An observational method where the researcher remains separate and observes behaviour without actively participating.

Correlation

A research technique designed to investigate whether and how strongly two continuous covariables are related.

Covariables

The variables examined and measured in a correlational analysis to determine the relationship between them.

Positive Correlation

A relationship where as one covariable increases, the second covariable also increases.

Negative Correlation

A relationship where as one covariable increases, the other covariable decreases.

Target Population

The complete group of individuals from which a sample is drawn and about whom the researcher wants to make conclusions.

Sample

A selected sub-group of a target population chosen to represent that wider population in a study.

Random Sampling

A sampling technique where every member of the identified target population has an equal chance of being selected.

Stratified Sampling

A sampling technique ensuring that sub-groups of the target population are represented in the sample in exact proportion to their occurrence.

Opportunity Sampling

A convenience-based sampling method selecting participants from the target population who are available and willing to take part at that time.

Volunteer Sampling

A sampling method where participants self-select to take part in research, typically in response to an advert or public announcement.

Standardised Procedure

Maintaining identical instructions, tasks, and experimental testing steps for all participants.

Order Effects

Changes in a participant's performance caused specifically by the order in which experimental conditions or tasks are presented.

Investigator Effects

Unintended effects where a researcher's expectations, appearance, or behaviour bias participant responses or study results.

Subjectivity

A state in which personal opinions, expectations, or emotional feelings influence judgements and evaluations.

Objectivity

The practice of making evaluations and judgements based purely on observable facts rather than personal opinion.

Validity

The degree to which a research study or testing instrument actually measures what it claims to measure.

Reliability

The extent to which research findings or test results remain consistent when a study is replicated.

Generalizability

How effectively the findings from a research sample can be applied to a wider target population or alternative settings.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency of respondents to answer questions dishonestly in order to present themselves in a favourable light.

Reductionist

An approach that explains complex human behaviour by focusing solely on one or a small number of isolated factors.

Ethics

Moral rules and codes of conduct designed to protect participants from harm and ensure they are treated with fairness.