Drugs and Behavior Exam 3

cannabis sativa

• hemp plant species from which THC, CBD and other cannabinoids are derived

  • cannabis indica discovered later

  • first referenced in 2737 BC in writings from a Chinese emperor

  • stalks used for making rope, twine, ship sails, containers, etc.

  • also used later on as medication for arthritis, gout, malaria, etc.

cannabis history

• brought to Jamestown by English settlers in 1611

• Recreational use

  • Hashish brought home by French soldiers from Egypt

    • became a craze in Western Europe

  • 1900-1930- became super popular in the US → prohibition → marijuana clubs > speakeasies

    • 1930’s- “Anti marijuana crusade”

  • Federal Bureau of Narcotics (FBN) convinced public that marijuana was going to destroy the American youth

    • pharmacological violence theory → mass hysteria

  • marijuana tax act (1937)

  • controlled substances act (1970)

• starting in 2005, farmers began challenging legislation against industrial help

  • decreasing demand and prices for corn, soybeans, and tobacco (hemp could be a profitable alternative)

  • proposed hemp as a non-narcotic agricultural commodity for legal/legitimate products

  • farm act (2018)

marijuana tax act

• 1937

• required everyone involved in marijuana growth, manufacture, selling, and buying to pay a tax

  • did not technically make marijuana illegal

  • ruled unconstitutional in 1969 (after every state made it illegal)

controlled substances act

• 1970

• made all cannabis derivates and growing cannabis sativa illegal

  • hemp and marijuana were both Schedule 1 substances

hemp

variety of the cannabis plant with less than .3% THC

• non psychoactive, no “high”

farm act

• 2018

  • made hemp and hemp derivates legal and no longer classified as controlled substance

    • must have less than .3% THC

    • included CBD

decriminalization

• purchase, possession, and use of small amounts of the drug are not subject to criminal prosecution, but are still punishable by fine, mandatory education, etc.

legalization

• purchase, possession, and use of small amounts would no longer be illegal

  • assumes minimum age requirement, personal use only, no use while driving, etc.

cannabis recreational use today

• fully legalized in 24 states

• illegal but decriminalized in 7 states

• illegal and subject to criminal prosecution in 19 states (medical use legal in 10/19)

• currently still a Schedule 1

  • in 2024, the DEA proposed to move to schedule 3 (currently ongoing)

cannabis current regulations

• no smoking in public

• licenses for growing/sellers

• limits on the amount you can possess (typically 1oz/28g)

cannabinoids

• chemical compounds found in the cannabis plant

  • some psychoactive, some not

  • psychoactive cannabinoids typically found in the resin on the leaves of cannabis plants

  • different climates = different resin

• types with high enough THC to be psychoactive

  • marijuana

  • sinsemilla

  • hashish

  • hashish oil

• improve mood and decrease anxiety, regulate appetite, and relive pain

  • due to the binding of THC to CB1 receptors (decreased GABA, increased glutamate, and increased dopamine)

delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinoil

• THC

• primary psychoactive compound of cannabis and active ingredient in marijuana and hashish

determinants of THC concentration

• genetic makeup of the plant (strain type, enzymes)

• growing technique (harvest timing, storage)

• environmental conditions (temperature, pH levels, light)

marijuana

• most commonly available psychoactive drug from the cannabis plant, made from dried cannabis leaves ‘

  • average 15-20% THC

sinsemilla

• form of marijuana made from the unpollinated, seedless portions of the cannabis plant

  • average 20-25% THC

hashish

• cannabis product obtained by scraping the resin from cannabis leaves and drying it

  • up to 80% THC

hashish oil

• cannabis product made by boiling hashish to increase the psychoactive residue left behind

  • up to 90% THC

cannabidiol

• CBD

  • cannabinoid with some psychoactive properties but no intoxicating properties that has been used for medial purposes

    • activates different receptors than THC (CB2 rather than CB1)

cannabis routes of administration

• smoked (most common), vaped

  • extremely fast absorption (within seconds-minutes)

• oral (edibles)

  • slower absorption (around an hour)

smoked marijuana

• fast absorption, extremely slow elimination

  • variable absorption, dependent on how deeply the drug is inhaled and how long it is held in the lungs

  • more experienced smokers = greater absorption

• blood levels peak around 10 minutes and decline slowly (2-3 hours)

cannabis elimination

• marijuana stays in your system longer than any other drug

  • slow biotransformation

    • absorbed into fatty tissue, which excretes it very slowly

    • detectable in blood for 2 weeks and in urine for a month

      • highly variable

• factors that influence:

  • frequency of use/tolerance

  • metabolism

  • body fat percentage

  • genetics

  • hydration

cannabis acute effects

• highly variable

  • relaxed, happy and giggly, “light”

  • excessive emotions, anxious, lack of attention, and coordination

  • discomfort, headache, throat pain

cannabis physiological effects

• red eyes, increased HR initially, dry mouth, feeling physically “out of body”

• impaired motor coordination

  • 3x increased risk of driving accidents

  • deficits in the ability to make appropriate responses

• inconsistent across cultures

  • partially dependent on expectations, partially dependent on dosage, processing technique, etc.

  • ex: the idea that it makes you hungry widely varies across cultures

cannabis psychological effects

• high- feelings of euphoria and increased well being

• increased awareness of surroundings, heightened sensory experiences, feeling like everything is funny, feeling like time is slowed, sleepy or “dreamy,” lack of focus, impaired memory, confusing speech

• in some people, paranoia and anxiety

• occasionally, symptoms like delusions, hallucinations, and depersonalization

  • unlikely, higher risk with pre-existing disorders

cannabis tolerance

• physiologically, the more frequently you use, the higher dose you need to reach the same concentration levels

• behaviorally, more experienced users tend to become intoxicated quicker and to a greater extent than inexperienced users

  • due to smoking being a learned skill (the more you use, the more you can hold in your lungs)

  • chronic smokers often have residual THC in system

cannabis withdrawal

• observed even after short-term use or low levels of THC administered

  • irritability, stomach pain, anxiety, loss of appetite

  • milder than other addictive drugs

cannabis dependence

• significantly lower risk compared to other addictive drugs

• not really any scientific evidence of cravings

  • however, this is likely because you cant study marijuana with high enough THC concentrations

cannabis chronic health effects

1. respiratory effects

2. cardiovascular effects

3. immune system effects

4. hormonal effects

5. motivational deficits

6. neurological changes

cannabis respiratory effects

• smoking a joint is more dangerous than smoking a cigarette

  • joints don’t have filters like cigarettes do

• increased asthma symptoms and higher risk of emphysema

• currently, no causal links between smoking and lung cancer

  • few studies have looked at the longitudinal effects of marijuana use

cannabis cardiovascular effects

• short-term increases in HR, but no conclusive evidence on long-term negative effects in healthy people

• can worsen symptoms in people with pre-existing cardiovascular problems (e.g. heart diseases)

cannabis immune system effects

• THC suppresses the immune system

  • CBD can have short term positive effects on the immune system, but these can be overshadowed by higher doses of THC

cannabis hormonal effects

• reduces testosterone in men and luteinizing hormone (LH) in women

  • conflicting evidence

cannabis motivational deficits

• amotivational syndrome

• evidence:

  • chronic use associated with lack of energy, negatively impacted relationships, decreased productivity, decreased interest in activities

  • students who regularly smoke marijuana tend to:

    • have lower grades

    • miss more classes

    • be more likely to drop out

amotivational syndrome

• condition characterized by a general sense of apathy and indifference to long-term plans

  • association with marijuana proposed in the 60’s

cannabis neurological deficits

• largely dependent on the age of cannabis use onset

  • the younger you start, the greater your risk

  • chronic use associated with:

    • working memory

    • processing speed

    • decision making capacity

    • inhibition

cannabis on the brain

• produces stimulating, sedative, analgesic, and hallucinatory effects

• receptors sensitive discovered in 1990

  • endocannabinoids

    • anadamide

endocannabinoids

• naturally occurring compounds and the NTs that bind to cannabinoid receptors

  • ex: anandamide

anandamide

• naturally occurring fatty acid NT in the brain that binds to cannabinoid receptors

  • improves mood and decreases anxiety, regulates appetite, and relieves pain

  • first endocannabinoid discovered

  • both THC and CBD act like this

cannabinoid receptors

• CB1

• CB2

CB1 receptors

• type of cannabinoid receptor located in the brain and gut (central NS), activated by THC

  • THC mimics anandamide

CB2 receptors

• type of cannabinoid receptors located across the immune system in lymph tissue (peripheral NS), activated by CBD

  • CBD increases naturally available anandamide

gateway hypothesis

• the idea that the abuse of one drug will inherently lead to the abuse of other, more dangerous drugs

  • have to consider:

    • sequencing

    • association

    • causation

sequencing

• factor of the gateway hypothesis: does use of marijuana come before other drugs

• evidence:

  • around 2/3 of illicit drug users claim that the first illicit drug they used was marijuana

  • however, only 40% of marijuana users go on to use other illicit drugs

association

• factor of the gateway hypothesis: is marijuana use a risk factor for other drug use

  • evidence:

    • marijuana smokers are several times more likely to use other illicit drugs compared to people who have never used marijuana

    • however, maybe they just have similar risk factors

causation

• factor of the gateway hypothesis: does marijuana actually cause the use of other drugs

  • intrinsic argument

  • sociocultural argument

intrinsic argument

• part of the gateway hypothesis causation

  • some inherent property of marijuana exposure leads to physical or psychological dependence on other illicit drugs

sociocultural arguments

• part of the gateway hypothesis causation

  • people who use marijuana tend to have friends who use marijuana and/or other drugs, so there are naturally more opportunities for drug experimentation

medical marijuana

• early research looked at marijuana for intraocular pressure and bronchial dilation (asthma)

• today, research focuses on marijuana for muscle spasms and chronic pain, nausea, and epilepsy

  • shown to have muscle relaxing properties (effective for reducing chronic muscle spasms associated with MS)

  • decreases neuropathic pain; can block sensory neurons from sending pain signals to the brain

  • limited evidence suggests promising effects of cannabis for cancer-related pain and phantom limb pain

  • nausea: may be effective even in cases where typical anti-nausea drugs are not

    • THC activates CB1 receptors in brain regions associated with nausea/vomiting, blocking other receptors associated with nausea

  • CBD associated with decreases in seizure activity

dangers of medical marijuana

• majority of potential dangers associated with smoked marijuana

  • difficult to regulate dosage, lung effects, etc.

• potential psychological side effects

  • anxiety, depression, psychosis, etc.

• cardiovascular effects may be excessively dangerous for certain conditions

drug

• a chemical substance that, when taken into the body, alters the structure or functioning of the body in some way, EXCLUDING those nutrients considered to be related to normal functioning

  • and if the intended purpose to is to induce bodily or psychological change

ethanol

a colorless liquid produced by the fermentation of sugars

fermentation

• the process of chemically converting natural sugars into ethanol using yeasts

  • produces alcohol

brewing

• the process of fermenting barley to produce beer

distillation

• the process of boiling a fermented liquid to increase the alcohol concentration in that liquid

  • produces liquor

proof

• reflects the alcohol content in a liquid after distillation

  • 2x the percentage of alcohol

  • ex: 80 proof whiskey is 40% alcohol

alcohol history

• 8000 BC- mead (fermented honey) was the original alcoholic beverage

• 3700 BC- first brewery established by the Egyptians

• 1200's- first documented distillation of alcohol (wine into brandy)

  • “aqua vitae”

• mid 1600s- development of gin in Europe

  • distillation of liquor mixd with juniper berries (cheaper than brandy, stronger than wine)

• mid 1700s- alcohol abuse was an epidermic (“Gin Craze” in Great Britain)

• 1830s- in the US, was always popular (average American had 5 drinks per day = ~ gallons per year )

• 1800’s- temperance movement

• Post prohibition → minimum drinking age chosen by states, mostly 21

  • 1970 - 26th amendment lowered voting age to 18 (many states lowered their minimum drinking age to 18/19/20)

  • alcohol related traffic fatalities increased (mothers against drunk driving MADD)

  • → national minimum drinking age act

Temperance movement

• 1800’s

  • advocated for decreased alcohol consumption (not necessarily total prohibition)

  • lead to political movements aimed at electing candidates who would enact anti-alcohol legislation

    • women’s christian temperance union (1880)

    • national prohibition party (1869)

    • anti-saloon league (1893)

prohibition

• 18th amendment

• the volstead act

• worked for maybe a year, then failed dramatically

  • liquor smuggling, speakeasies, economic impact

• → 21st amendment

18th amendment

• 1920

  • prohibited the manufacture, selling, and transportation of alcohol illegal

  • part of the prohibition

volstead act

• law that established national prohibition by making it illegal to manufacture/sell alcohol

  • initially vetoed by President Wilson, but Congress overrode the veto

  • part of the prohibition

21st amendment

• 1933

  • repealed the 18th amendment, gave the power to regulate alcohol back to the states

    • all states ended statewide prohibition by 1966 (Mississippi)

national minimum drinking age act

• 1984

  • made all states to raise their minimum drinking age to 21

    • threat of withheld highway funds

    • decreased under 21 drunk driving fatalities

standard drinks

• Beer - 5%

  • 12 oz

• Wine - 12%

  • 5 oz

• Spirits - 40%

  • 1.5 oz

alcohol consumption

1. current alcohol use

2. binge alcohol use

3. heavy alcohol use

current alcohol use

• any use of alcohol within the past month

binge alcohol use

• consuming 5 or more drinks for men or 4 or more drinks for women on a single occasion in the past month

heavy alcohol use

• binge drinking 5 or more times in the past month

alcohol absorption

• easily absorbed into the bloodstream through the GI tract

  • 20% directly from the stomach

  • 80% from the upper intestine

• lipid soluble, so passes through BBB

  • 90% in the bloodstream reaches the brain relatively quickly (a few minutes)

  • levels peak in 60-90 minutes

• factors that increase the speed:

  • less food in stomach

  • higher alcohol concentration in drinks

  • carbonation in drinks

  • faster speed of drinking

  • smaller body size/lower body weight

  • biological sex

  • race/ethnicity

  • medications

blood alcohol concentration

• the number of grams of alcohol in the blood relative to 100 mL of blood

  • .01-.05%- cautionary

  • .05-.08%- driving impaired

  • .08%+ - legally drunk

alcohol elimination

1. by the lungs through exhalation (5% of alcohol)

2. in urine after biotransformation into CO2 and water (95% of alcohol)

oxidation

• the process of chemically breaking down alcohol for elimination in the body

1. alcohol dehydrogenase breaks down alcohol into acetaldehyde

2. acetaldehyde dehydrogenase breaks down acetaldehyde into acetic acid

ethanol (alcohol dehydrogenase) → acetaldehyde (acetaldehyde dehydrogenase) → acetic acid

• rate: 100mg of alcohol per hour per kg of body weight

  • generally, ½ of an ounce of pure alcohol is metabolized per hour

alcohol biotransformation

• the speed of the entire process depends on the speed at which alcohol dehydrogenase works

  • people who have less alcohol dehydrogenase eliminate alcohol slower

  • ex: women have 60% less alcohol dehydrogenase in the stomach than men do

alcohol on the brain

• CNS depressant

• commonly mistaken as a stimulant

  • inhibits inhibitory brain regions (disinhibition)

  • decreases social inhibition

• acts on GABA receptors

  • GABA agonist

• increases dopamine

  • feelings of reward that can lead to addiction

depressant

a drug that slows physiological and mental functioning

alcohol behavioral effects

• excitement, talkativeness, slurred speech, irritability

• lack of coordination, drowsiness, sensorimotor difficulties, stupro

• impaired perception and judgement

• decreased behavioral inhibition (aggression)

alcohol aggression

• difficult to separate the effects of aggression with teh effects of alcohol

• theories that link between intoxication and violence

  • disinhibition theory

  • cognitive-expectation theory

  • alcohol myopia theory

disinhibition theory

• theory linked intoxication and violence

  • alcohol impairs normal cortical mechanisms that inhibit aggression

cognitive-expectation theory

• theory linked intoxication and violence

  • learned beliefs/expectations about alcohol’s effects can facilitate aggressive behaviors

alcohol myopia theory

• theory linked intoxication and violence

  • intoxicated individuals can only focus on salient environmental cues, so they miss subtle social cues

alcohol acute toxic effects

• vasodilation

  • blood vessels near the skin are enlarged, making your skin feel warm when your actual core temperature is dropping

• inhibition of antidiuretic hormone (ADH= increased urination)

  • effect reverses when BAC peaks, resulting in swelling

• potential for asphyxiation

  • most severe potential effect

  • generally becomes a fatality risk when BAC reaches .50%

• reduced REM sleep

• Dangerous interactions with other drugs

• blackouts and hangovers

• some may be a protective measure

  • stomach irritation can make people vomit → alcohol cant get into bloodstream

  • people may pass out → cant drink more if youre unconscious

blackouts

• occur when:

  • alcohol suppresses regions of the brain responsible for the formation of long-term memories

  • occurs when alcohol is consumed super quickly

hangovers

• why do they happen:

  • congeners

    • risk depends on the alcohol type

    • ex: whiskey more likely than vodka

  • residual stomach irritation, dehydration, traces of acetaldehyde in blood, low blood sugar

congeners

• non-ethanol alcohols, oils, and other organic substances found in trace amounts in distilled drinks

  • why hangover risk depends on alcohol type

  • ex: whiskey is more likely than vodka to produce a hangover because it contains more

alcohol potential health benefits

• drinking a glass of red wine every day can reduce the risk of coronary heart disease

  • mixed evidence, potentially confounded

• moderate alcohol (no more than 2 drinks per day for men and 1 for women) intake shown to reduce the risk of

  • diabetes

  • stroke

  • dementia

  • rheumatoid arthritis

alcoholic

• no typical image

• it is virtually impossible to make a demographic profile for an alchoholic

models of alcholism

• American medial association model

• American Psychological Association model

American medial association model

• model of alcoholism

  • alcoholism characterized by impaired control over drinking, preoccupation, use despite adverse consequences, and distortions in thinking

    • alcoholism as a disease

American psychological association model

• model of alcoholism

  • alcoholism characterized by a set of behavioral criteria, including overuse, persistent desire/attempts to quit, excessive time spent drinking, strong cravings, etc.

    • alcoholism as a psychiatric disorder (behavioral)

alcoholism

4 basic criteria

1. preoccupation with drinking

2. emotional problems

3. vocational, social, and family problems

4. physical health problems

preoccupation with drinking

• criteria of alcoholism

  • drinking incorporated into everyday life

  • symptomatic drinking

  • ex: consistent shower beers

  • ex: relying on drinking while studying

• heavy drinking can look like: drinking a lot at once or drinking often

• cravings and compulsions similar to that of ohte rdrugs

  • difference: social acceptance

    • ex: bar carts, pregaming

symptomatic drinking

• alcohol viewed as a way of relieving tension, depression, or other negative mood states

emotional problems

• criteria of alcoholism

  • alcohol is a depressant

    • chronic consumption produces depressive symptoms

      • ~40% of individuals with dependence will experience an alcohol-induced depressive episode

    • decreased inhibition can produce aggression

vocational problems

• criteria of alcoholism

  • domestic violence, child abuse, job loss, etc.

physical health problems

• criteria of alcoholism

  • brain of an alcoholic has similar neural deficits as Alzheimer’s

  • liver is most affected

alcohol abuse

• the continued use of alcohol for at least one month despite the knowledge of having a persistent or recurring physical problem or some difficulty in social or occupational functioning

• the recurring use of alcohol in situations when alcohol consumption is physically hazardous

• you can do this without being dependent on it

alcohol dependence

• characterized by (at least 3 of):

  • consuming alcohol in greater amounts or over a longer period than intended

  • persistent desire or unsuccessful attempts to cut down or control drinking

  • a great deal of time spent drinking or recovering from drinking

  • alcohol consumption despite knowledge that drinking either causes or exacerbates recurrent physical or psychological problems

  • major social, occupational or recreational activities given up or reduced

  • the need to drink more than before to achieve previous levels of intoxication

  • symptoms of alcohol withdrawal or the consumption of alcohol to relieve or avoid withdrawal symptoms

• involves greater impairment than abuse

  • 15% of men and 10% of women; 6% of college students meet criteria every year

• more long term

alcohol use disorder

• DSM-5 diagnosis that includes a combination of alcohol abuse and dependence criteria

tolerance

• alcohol dehydrogenase works faster, so alcohol metabolizes faster

• can be associated with bars, parties, sporting events, etc. (behavioral)

  • decreased skin temperature, decreased pulse, etc.

alcohol withdrawal syndromes

• more common; characterized by physiological discomfort, seizures, and sleep disturbances

  • insomnia, vivid dreams, severe hangover, tremors, sweating, mild agitation, anxiety, nausea, increased HR and BP

  • peaks 24-36 hours after last drink, its over after 28 hours

delirium tremens

• less common, more dangerous; characterized by extreme disorientation and confusion, fever, and hallucinations

  • disorientation, profuse sweating, nightmares, hallucinations

  • peaks 3-4 days after last drink