AP PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 1

Evolutionary Perspective

the study of how psychological traits and behaviors have evolved over time to enhance survival and reproductive success

Natural Selection

the process by which organisms with traits that are better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on those advantageous traits to future generations

Nature (Genes)

are the inherent biological and genetic factors that influence an individual's psychological development, traits, behaviors, and cognitive abilities

Nurture (Environment)

the environmental influences and experiences that shape an individual's psychological development, behaviors, and cognitive processes

Twin Studies

Examines similarities and differences between identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins to assess the relative influence of genetics and environment on traits and behaviors

Adoption Studies

Investigates similarities between adopted children and their biological and adoptive families to assess the impact of genetics versus environment on various traits and behaviors

Family Studies

Analyzes similarities and differences among family members, including parents and siblings, to understand the interplay of genetics and environment in shaping traits and behaviors within a family unit

Heredity

the transmission of genetic information from biological parents to offspring

Genetic Predisposition

the inherited likelihood of developing specific traits or conditions due to genetic factors from biological parents

Eugenics

the belief in improving the genetic quality of a human population by controlling reproduction to increase desirable traits and decrease undesirable ones

Cerebral Cortex

the outer layer of the brain, responsible for higher-level cognitive functions, including thinking, perceiving, and decision-making

Association Area

They're parts of the brain that take information from all over the place like what we see, hear, smell, and touch-and put it together to help us understand the world around us

Frontal Lobes

located at the front of the brain and are involved in higher-level cognitive functions, including decision- making. problem-solving, planning, and personality expression

Prefrontal Cortex

a region of the brain located in the frontal lobe, responsible for higher-level cognitive functions and executive functioning

Executive Functioning

a set of cognitive processes that enable individuals to plan, organize, strategize, focus attention, regulate emotions, and manage time effectively

Motor Cortex

region of the brain located in the frontal lobe, responsible for planning. executing, and controlling voluntary movements of the body

Parietal Lobes

located at the top of the brain and are primarily responsible for processing sensory information from the body, such as touch, temperature, and spatial awareness

Somatosensory Cortex

region of the brain located in the parietal lobe, responsible for processing sensations from the skin, muscles, and joints

Occipital Lobes

located at the back of the brain and is primarily responsible for processing visual information received from the eyes

Temporal Lobes

located on the sides of the brain and are involved in processing auditory information, language comprehension, and memory formation

Corpus Callosum

thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain, facilitating communication and information sharing between the two hemispheres

Brainstem

the oldest and most primitive part of the brain, responsible for basic life- sustaining functions such as breathing, heart rate, and sleep-wake cycles

Medulla

vital structure located at the base of the brainstem, regulating essential autonomic functions such as heartbeat, breathing, and blood pressure

Reticular Activating System

a network of neurons located in the brainstem that plays a critical role in regulating arousal, attention, and consciousness

Cerebellum

located at the back of the brain, below the cerebral hemispheres, responsible for coordinating movement, balance, and posture

Limbic System

The limbic system, located beneath the cerebral cortex, is a set of brain structures involved in emotions, memory, and motivation

Reward Center

network of brain structures, primarily located in the limbic system, that processes pleasurable experiences and reinforces behaviors associated with them

Thalamus

a relay station in the brain that processes and relays sensory information, such as sight, sound, touch, and taste, to the cerebral cortex

Hypothalamus

a structure located below the thalamus, responsible for regulating various essential bodily functions, including hunger, thirst, body temperature, and the sleep-wake cycle.

Pituitary Gland

small pea-sized gland located at the base of the brain, often referred to as the "master gland' due to its central role in regulating hormone production and secretion throughout the body

Hippocampus

curved structure located within the brain's temporal lobes, primarily responsible for forming and consolidating new memories

Amygdala

small, almond-shaped structure located deep within the brain's temporal lobes, involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression

Nervous System

the body's communication network, consisting of a complex system of nerves, neurons, and specialized cells

Central Nervous System (CNS)

consists of the brain and spinal cord. It serves as the command center of the body. responsible for processing information, coordinating responses, and regulating bodily functions

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

consists of all the nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord

Autonomic Nervous System

division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary bodily functions, It operates automatically, without conscious control

Sympathetic Nervous System

responsible for activating the body's "fight or flight" response in times of stress or danger

Parasympathetic Nervous System

responsible for promoting relaxation and restoring the body to a calm state after experiencing stress or danger

Somatic Nervous System

responsible for promoting relaxation and restoring the body to a calm state after experiencing stress or danger

Neurons

specialized cell that serves as the building block of the nervous system, transmitting electrical and chemical signals throughout the body

Glial Cells

the "support cells" of the nervous system, provide structural support, insulation, and nourishment to neurons

Motor Neurons

nerve cells that transmit signals from the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) to muscles, glands, and organs, initiating and controlling voluntary and involuntary movements

Sensory Neurons

specialized nerve cells that transmit sensory information from sensory receptors, such as those in the skin, muscles, and organs, to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)

Interneurons

nerve cells that serve as connectors within the central nervous system, relaying signals between sensory neurons and motor neurons

Reflex Arc

neural pathway that controls reflex actions, allowing for rapid, automatic responses to sensory stimuli without conscious thought (primitive reflexes)

Neural Transmission

the process by which neurons communicate with each other through electrical and chemical signals

Threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neuron. It is the minimum amount of stimulation necessary to produce a response

Action Potential

brief electrical impulse that travels along the axon of a neuron

All-Or-Nothing Principle

states that once a neuron reaches its threshold of excitation, it will fire an action potential at full strength

Depolarization

phase of action potential where the inside of the neuron becomes less negative compared to the outside due to the influx of positively charged ions, such as sodium ions, through ion channels in the cell membrane

Refractory Period

brief period following an action potential during which a neuron is unable to generate another action potential

Resting Potential

the stable, negative electrical charge that exists across the cell membrane of a neuron when it is not actively transmitting signals

Reuptake

process in which neurotransmitters that have been released into the synapse are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron from which they were originally released

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

chronic autoimmune disease that affects the central nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord

Myasthenia Gravis

chronic autoimmune disorder that affects the neuromuscular junction, where nerve impulses are transmitted to muscles

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons. allowing for communication within the nervous system

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

chemicals released by neurons that increase the likelihood of an action potential occurring in the postsynaptic neuron

Glutamate

the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS, playing a key role in synaptic transmission and neuronal communication. It is involved in various brain functions, including learning, memory, and neural plasticity.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

chemicals released by neurons that decrease the likelihood of an action potential occurring in the postsynaptic neuron

GABA

a neurotransmitter that acts as the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. It promotes relaxation and reduces anxiety

Dopamine

neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in regulating mood, reward, motivation, and movement

Serotonin

neurotransmitter that plays a vital role in regulating mood, sleep, appetite, and stress

Endorphins

neurotransmitters produced by the brain and central nervous system that act as natural pain relievers and mood enhancers

Substance P

neurotransmitter involved in transmitting pain signals in the nervous system

Acetylcholine

neurotransmitter that plays a fundamental role in both the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system

Hormones

chemical messengers produced by glands in the endocrine system that travel through the bloodstream to target cells or organs, where they regulate various physiological processes and behaviors

Ghrelin

hormone produced primarily by the stomach and small intestine that stimulates appetite and promotes hunger

Leptin

hormone produced primarily by fat cells that regulates energy balance and appetite. It acts on the hypothalamus in the brain to suppress appetite and increase energy expenditure

Melatonin

hormone that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and circadian rhythms in the body

Oxytocin

hormone and neurotransmitter that plays a key role in social bonding

Adrenaline

hormone and neurotransmitter that plays a key role in the body's stress response, often referred to as the "fight or flight" response

Norepinephrine

neurotransmitter that functions as both a hormone and a neurotransmitter in the body. It is involved in the body's "fight or flight" response, regulating arousal, attention, and stress

Plasticity

refers to the brain's ability to reorganize and adapt throughout life in response to experiences, learning, and environmental changes

Split Brain Research

the phenomenon where each hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body

Contralateral Hemispheric Organization

the phenomenon where each hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body

Hemispheric Specialization

explored through split brain research, refers to the concept that each hemisphere of the brain has specialized functions and abilities

Linguistic Processing

the complex cognitive processes involved in understanding and producing language

Broca's Area

located in the left hemisphere of the brain, specifically in the frontal lobe, that is responsible for speech production and language processing

Broca's Aphasia

language disorder caused by damage to Broca's area in the left hemisphere of the brain, often resulting from stroke or brain injury

Wernicke's Area

region located in the left hemisphere of the brain, specifically in the temporal lobe, that is involved in language comprehension and understanding spoken and written language

Wernicke's Aphasia

language disorder caused by damage to Wernicke's area in the left hemisphere of the brain, typically resulting from stroke or brain injury

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

non- invasive neuroimaging technique used to record the electrical activity of the brain

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

non- invasive neuroimaging technique used to record the electrical activity of the brain

Lesioning

research technique used to study brain function by intentionally damaging or destroying specific areas of the brain in experimental animals

Agonists

Substances that bind to neurotransmitter receptors and mimic their effects, enhancing neural activity

Antagonists

Substances that bind to neurotransmitter receptors without activating them, blocking the effects of neurotransmitter

Reuptake Inhibitors

Medications that block the reabsorption of neurotransmitters by the sending neuron, thereby increasing the concentration of neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft and enhancing neurotransmission

Stimulants

Drugs that increase neural activity and arousal, leading to heightened alertness, attention, and energy levels

Caffeine

A natural stimulant found in coffee, tea, and some sodas. It acts on the central nervous system, increasing alertness and reducing fatigue by blocking the neurotransmitter adenosine

Cocaine

A powerful stimulant derived from the coca plant. It increases neural activity, leading to euphoria, increased energy, and alertness

Depressant

Drugs that slow down neural activity and bodily functions. They induce relaxation, sedation, and can lower inhibition

Alcohol

depressant drug that slows down neural activity in the central nervous system. It can impair judgment, coordination, and cognitive functions, leading to relaxation, euphoria, and in higher doses, intoxication

Hallucinogen

Drugs that alter perception, mood, and cognitive processes, often causing hallucinations or profound changes in consciousn

Marijiuana

psychoactive drug derived from the cannabis plant. It contains THC, which alters mood, perception, and cognition. Effects include relaxation, altered perception of time, and heightened sensory experiences

Opioids

psychoactive drugs that act on opioid receptors in the brain and body, producing pain relief, euphoria, and sedation

Heroin

A highly addictive opioid drug derived from morphine. It produces intense euphoria, pain relief, and sedation by binding to opioid receptors in the brain

Tolerance

A condition where increasing amounts of a psychoactive substance are needed to achieve the same effects. It occurs due to the brain's adaptation to the drug, leading to reduced sensitivity to its effects over time

Withdrawal

The onset of symptoms when a person stops using a psychoactive substance after prolonged use. Symptoms can include physical discomfort, psychological distress, and cravings for the drug

Addiction

A chronic brain disorder characterized by compulsive drug seeking and use, despite harmful consequences. It involves changes in brain structure and function, leading to a loss of control over drug consumption

Consciousness

The state of being aware of and able to perceive one's thoughts. feelings, sensations, and surroundings. It involves various levels, from alert wakefulness to altered states such as sleep or meditation