LESSON 7: PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

LESSON 7: ETHICAL PRINCIPLES AND STANDARDS OF PRACTICE I. ETHICS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

Ethics

refers to the standards that direct the conduct of professional members in psychology, particularly in activities such as psychological assessment.

Psychological assessment

This is important because it helps professionals understand human behaviour, diagnose mental health conditions, guide effective treatment interventions, and make informed decisions and recommendations.

Mental health professionals

They must ensure that ethical guidelines are followed throughout the assessment process

Individuals and Groups Covered by APA Assessment Guidelines

1. Psychologists conducting assessments – Those who administer, score, interpret tests, prepare reports, and provide feedback.

2. Psychology students pursuing higher degrees – Students receiving advanced training in psychological assessment.

3. Test selectors and recommenders – Individuals responsible for selecting psychological tests, determining their necessity and use, and making recommendations.

4. Test purchasers and overseers – Those who purchase, acquire, and maintain psychological assessment tools and procedures.

5. Supervisors and supervised personnel – Those who supervise assessment activities and individuals working under a higher-credentialed professional.

6. Test users and interpreters – Those who generate, use, interpret, and provide feedback about assessment results.

7. Test developers – Those who create test content and gather evidence regarding reliability, validity, prediction of outcomes, and fairness across different groups.

8. Educators and trainers – Those responsible for teaching psychological assessment, testing, and evaluation.

9. Employers – Those who use assessments to make personnel-related decisions.

10. The public and test takers – Individuals who take tests and those affected by the results.

11. Legislative and regulatory bodies – Organizations that establish, monitor, and regulate psychological assessment and evaluation.

12. Professional psychology associations – Organizations that establish and promote professional practices.

Psychologists conducting assessments

Those who administer, score, interpret tests, prepare reports, and provide feedback.

Psychology students pursuing higher degrees

Students receiving advanced training in psychological assessment.

Test selectors and recommenders

Individuals responsible for selecting psychological tests, determining their necessity and use, and making recommendations.

Test purchasers and overseers

Those who purchase, acquire, and maintain psychological assessment tools and procedures.

Supervisors and supervised personnel

Those who supervise assessment activities and individuals working under a higher-credentialed professional.

Test users and interpreters

Those who generate, use, interpret, and provide feedback about assessment results.

Test developers

Those who create test content and gather evidence regarding reliability, validity, prediction of outcomes, and fairness across different groups.

Educators and trainers

Those responsible for teaching psychological assessment, testing, and evaluation.

Employers

Those who use assessments to make personnel-related decisions.

The public and test takers

Individuals who take tests and those affected by the results

Legislative and regulatory bodies

Organizations that establish, monitor, and regulate psychological assessment and evaluation

Professional psychology associations

Organizations that establish and promote professional practices.

Guidelines

Are statements that suggest or recommend specific professional behavior, activities, or conduct.

Characteristics:

• Aspirational in nature.

• Not mandatory or definitive.

• Not exhaustive.

• Intended to promote high levels of professional practice.

• Help professionals develop systematically.

• Support professional judgment and decision-making.

• May not apply to every professional or clinical situation.

Standards

Are mandatory requirements that professionals are expected to follow.

Characteristics:

• Required professional conduct.

• May have enforcement mechanisms.

• Establish minimum expectations for professional practice.

Example: APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (2017).

Professional practice guidelines

• Are consistent with the APA Ethics Code (2017).

• Acknowledge the Standards of Accreditation for Health Service Psychology.

• Recognize the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing.

• Are consistent with the Professional Practice Guidelines for Developers and Users (APA, 2015).

Assessment Qualifications

refer to the combination of knowledge, skills, abilities, training, experience, and professional credentials necessary for using psychological tests and assessment materials.

Generic assessment knowledge and skills

General knowledge and skills necessary for typical uses of psychological tests

Specific assessment qualifications

Qualifications required for responsible test use in particular settings and for specific purposes

Psychological Assessment

A complex activity that integrates:

• Knowledge.

• Clinical judgment.

• Reliable collateral information.

• Observations.

• Structured or semi-structured interviews.

• Psychometric constructs.

• Professional expertise.

It is a problem-solving process involving the identification and use of relevant information about individuals, groups, or institutions for decision-making and recommendations.

It also requires sensitivity toward diverse and underserved populations.

Assessment

the broader process of gathering and integrating information

Evaluation

a component and often the end product of the assessment process.

Psychological tests

psychometrically derived measurement instruments used to assess psychological constructs.

They involve:

1. Obtaining a structured sample of an examinee's behavior.

2. Quantifying responses.

3. Scoring the responses.

4. Interpreting the results.

5. Synthesizing the information.

6. Forming evaluative conclusions or recommendations

Other instruments included in psychological assessment

• Structured diagnostic interviewing systems.

• Structured life history inventories.

• Job performance prediction instruments.

Importance of Professional Standards

Psychologists follow professional standards to:

• Meet competency expectations.

• Avoid harm to clients.

• Provide fair and respectful services.

• Ensure competent treatment of examinees.

• Support appropriate treatment planning and decision-making.

PROFESSIONAL ISSUES

There are THREE major issues:

1. Theoretical concerns.

2. Adequacy of tests.

3. Actuarial versus clinical prediction

Theoretical Concerns

One of the most significant considerations in psychological testing is the dependability or reliability of test results.

Important points:

• Tests should demonstrate reliability or stability.

• Reliability concerns the consistency of measurement.

• Test results should reflect systematic and dependable sources of variation.

• Even the best tests do not achieve perfect temporal stability.

Reliability

refers to the degree to which test results are consistent, accurate, and relatively free from measurement error

Temporal reliability

refers to the stability of test results over time.

stable characteristics

An important assumption in psychological testing is that people possess relatively this. However, this assumption is not completely correct because the social environment influences human behavior

personal characteristics and environmental conditions

Human behavior is influenced by both. Therefore, changes in test results cannot automatically be attributed to measurement error.

Adequacy of Tests

This issue concerns whether psychological tests are properly used.

Important considerations:

• Tests should be evaluated using absolute standards, not merely relative standards.

• Test users must consider whether an instrument is appropriate for its intended purpose.

• Tests that produce selection bias are questionable.

• Test adequacy involves determining whether a test is suitable and appropriate for the population and situation.

Actuarial vs. Clinical Prediction

This issue concerns the accuracy of predictions made by test users.

Actuarial prediction

• Uses established statistical rules, formulas, or systematic procedures.

• Relies on empirical data and predetermined decision rules.

Clinical prediction

• Relies on the professional judgment and interpretation of trained practitioners.

MORAL ISSUES

Issues in psychological testing include:

1. Human rights.

2. Labelling.

3. Privacy invasion.

4. Divided loyalties.

Human Rights

Test takers have rights that must be protected throughout the testing process.

Right to respectful treatment

• Test takers must be treated with courtesy.

• They must be treated fairly regardless of gender, ethnicity, nationality, religion, age, and other personal characteristics.

Right to appropriate testing

• They should receive tests that meet professional benchmarks and standards.

• The tests should be appropriate for their circumstances.

Right to information before testing

They should receive an explanation of the kind of test to be administered.

Freedom to decline testing

Individuals generally have the freedom to refuse testing.

Freedom to withdraw

• Individuals generally have the right to withdraw from testing.

Exception: Testing may be required when mandated by law or government.

Right to know test results

• Individuals have the right to know their results and interpretations.

• They should understand the basis of judgments or decisions that affect their lives.

Right to know the basis of adverse decisions

• Test security must be protected.

• However, security should not be used to deny an individual's right to understand decisions that negatively affect them.

Test security

It is important, but it should not automatically override the rights of test takers.

Labelling

refers to assigning descriptions or classifications to individuals, such as psychiatric diagnoses or disorders.

Potential negative effects of labelling

• Stigmatization.

• Reduced tolerance for stress.

• Difficulty in treatment.

• Negative effects on self-perception.

• Restricted access to opportunities or assistance.

Labels

influence how individuals are treated by society and how they understand themselves.

Privacy Invasion

occurs when information gathered through psychological testing intrudes into an individual's personal life in ways that may not be justified by the benefits of testing.

Important points:

• Test takers may not fully understand what their responses reveal.

• Information must only be gathered and used for appropriate purposes.

• The inappropriate use of personal information can constitute an invasion of privacy.

• Psychologists are ethically, morally, and often legally required to maintain confidentiality.

Confidentiality

refers to the responsibility to protect personal information obtained during assessment and not disclose it without proper authorization.

Exceptions to confidentiality

• Withholding information may cause harm to the individual.

• Withholding information may endanger the larger society.

• Records are subpoenaed or required as evidence in court.

Test takers must be informed about

• The limits of confidentiality.

• The circumstances under which information may be disclosed.

• The possibility that records may be subpoenaed or presented in court.

Privacy

concerns the individual's personal information and boundaries, while confidentiality concerns the professional's responsibility to protect information obtained.

Divided Loyalties

occur when psychologists have conflicting responsibilities toward two or more parties.

The conflict commonly involves:

• The welfare and rights of the individual being assessed.

• The interests of the institution or organization employing the psychologist.

2 Responsibilities of Psychologists

1. Help the company identify suitable employees.

2. Protect the rights and welfare of the applicants.

How can divided loyalties be addressed?

1. Inform all concerned parties about where the psychologist's professional loyalty lies.

2. Explain how test results will be used.

3. Explain the limits of confidentiality before testing.

4. Provide the institution only the minimum information necessary.

5. Protect unnecessary or irrelevant personal information.

6. Ensure that the individual has access to an explanation of the basis of adverse decisions, personally or through a qualified representative.

SOCIAL ISSUES

The lesson identifies concerns such as:

• Dehumanization.

• Usefulness of tests.

• Access to psychological testing services.

The discussion focuses on dehumanization and usefulness of tests.

Dehumanization

refers to the reduction of human uniqueness, individuality, and freedom in the assessment or decision-making process.

It may occur through excessive reliance on technology and computerized testing.

Possible concerns in Dehumanization

• Computer-based testing may reduce personal interaction.

• Test takers may lose some freedom and individuality.

• Centralized databases may increase the possibility of automated judgments about people's lives.

• Human beings may be treated as data rather than unique individuals.

Usefulness of Tests

The main issue is not whether tests are perfect but whether they are useful to individuals and society.

Important points:

• Tests do not have to be perfect in every aspect to be useful.

• Early or simple instruments may become more accurate through research and development.

• Tests may provide useful information that would otherwise be difficult to obtain.

• The advantages and disadvantages of testing must continually be evaluated.

Disadvantages of tests

• Misinterpretation of results.

• Decisions that negatively affect individuals.

• Systematic discrimination against specific cultural groups.

• Inappropriate conclusions in particular settings.

CURRENT FASHIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

The lesson identifies THREE current trends:

1. Development of new tests.

2. Increased public awareness and influence.

3. Computer and internet applications.

Development of New Tests

Hundreds of new psychological tests are published each year.

Reasons for developing new tests:

• Professional disagreements about the best methods of measuring human behavior.

• Different perspectives regarding the nature of human behavior.

• Development of new theories about human characteristics.

• The need for more specific or appropriate assessment instruments.

Many newly developed tests are based on the same principles and theories as established tests.

However, some are developed using different theoretical models and concepts.

Examples mentioned in the lesson:

• Fear Survey Schedule (FSS).

• Differential Attitude Scale.

• Irrational Belief Test.

Reasons for developing new tests:

• Professional disagreements about the best methods of measuring human behavior.

• Different perspectives regarding the nature of human behavior.

• Development of new theories about human characteristics.

• The need for more specific or appropriate assessment instruments.

Increased Public Awareness and Influence on Testing

Public awareness of psychological testing has increased because of:

• Information and communication technology.

• Greater recognition of the importance of psychological services.

• Increased demand for psychological testing services.

Positive effects:

• Greater awareness of test takers' rights.

• Increased attention to human dignity.

• Greater public participation in promoting responsible testing.

• Reduced possibility of test misuse and abuse through informed test takers.

Computer and Internet Applications

Computers are increasingly used in administering, scoring, and interpreting psychological tests.

Adaptive Computerized Testing

A computerized testing approach in which the questions administered depend on the characteristics or responses of the test taker.

Computerized Ability Testing

The computer adjusts the difficulty of questions according to the test taker's previous responses.

• Incorrect answer = easier question.

• Correct answer = more difficult question.

Other uses of computers

• Test administration.

• Test scoring.

• Test interpretation.

• Generating tasks that traditional testing methods cannot easily present.

• Measuring anxiety, depression, and psychological reactance.

Examples mentioned of Computerized Ability Testing

• Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory.

• Multidimensional Aptitude Battery.

Responsible test use

requires consideration of the characteristics of the population being assessed.

RESPONSIBILITIES OF TEST STAKEHOLDERS IN ENSURING FAIR TESTING PRACTICES

There are FOUR major stakeholders:

1. Test sponsor.

2. Test developer.

3. Test administrator.

4. Test taker.

Test Sponsor

concerned with policy-related decisions regarding the use and administration of tests

Responsibilities of Test Sponsor

A. Communication with potential test takers

• Provide registration information.

• Explain general test content.

• Make information accessible.

• Consider cost, accessibility, and efficiency.

• Respond promptly to inquiries.

B. Make sound business decisions

• Choose an appropriate test development process.

• Prioritize test quality over simply reducing costs.

• Ensure that test developers have adequate technical expertise.

• Consider hiring consultants when necessary.

C. Prepare test information materials

Inform test takers about:

• Purpose of the test.

• How scores will be used and reported.

• Types of tasks and test formats.

• Computer testing procedures.

• Whether answers can be skipped or reviewed.

• Materials allowed during testing.

• Score invalidation policies.

• Retest rules.

D. Make appropriate administrative decisions

• Explain registration procedures and deadlines.

• Identify required identification documents.

• Inform test takers about fees.

• Explain late arrival and early dismissal policies.

• Provide an appropriate testing venue.

• Ensure sufficient space and minimal distractions.

E. Prepare interpretive guidance

• Explain the passing score.

• Provide general information about how passing scores are determined.

• Explain procedures for challenging scores.

• Provide information about regrades and second opinions.

• Respond promptly to questions and inquiries.

F. Protect security and confidentiality

• Ensure secure transfer of individual data.

• Protect stored test records.

• Maintain confidentiality.

• Establish policies for test security.

• Allow legitimate access to test results.

• Safeguard test integrity.

Communication with potential test takers

• Provide registration information.

• Explain general test content.

• Make information accessible.

• Consider cost, accessibility, and efficiency.

• Respond promptly to inquiries.

Make sound business decisions

• Choose an appropriate test development process.

• Prioritize test quality over simply reducing costs.

• Ensure that test developers have adequate technical expertise.

• Consider hiring consultants when necessary.

Prepare test information materials

Inform test takers about:

• Purpose of the test.

• How scores will be used and reported.

• Types of tasks and test formats.

• Computer testing procedures.

• Whether answers can be skipped or reviewed.

• Materials allowed during testing.

• Score invalidation policies.

• Retest rules.

Make appropriate administrative decisions

• Explain registration procedures and deadlines.

• Identify required identification documents.

• Inform test takers about fees.

• Explain late arrival and early dismissal policies.

• Provide an appropriate testing venue.

• Ensure sufficient space and minimal distractions.

Prepare interpretive guidance

• Explain the passing score.

• Provide general information about how passing scores are determined.

• Explain procedures for challenging scores.

• Provide information about regrades and second opinions.

• Respond promptly to questions and inquiries.

Protect security and confidentiality

• Ensure secure transfer of individual data.

• Protect stored test records.

• Maintain confidentiality.

• Establish policies for test security.

• Allow legitimate access to test results.

• Safeguard test integrity.

Test Developer

Responsibilities:

• Develop test content.

• Ensure that the test meets the sponsor's intended purpose and specifications.

• Follow sound measurement practices.

• Gather evidence of reliability.

• Gather evidence of validity.

• Examine fairness across different population groups.

Test Administrator

Responsibilities:

• Administer and deliver tests properly.

• Protect the integrity of test scores.

• Maintain test security.

• Follow appropriate testing procedures.

Test Taker

Responsibilities and rights:

• Receive necessary information before testing.

• Understand the purpose of the assessment.

• Know how results will be used.

• Understand relevant testing procedures and policies.

• Exercise applicable rights throughout the assessment process.

• Professional.

• Moral.

• Social.

Three categories of issues shaping psychological testing

• Theoretical concerns.

• Adequacy of tests.

• Actuarial versus clinical prediction.

Three professional issues

• Human rights.

• Labelling.

• Privacy invasion.

• Divided loyalties.

Four moral issues

• Dehumanization.

• Usefulness of tests.

Two social issues discussed

• Development of new tests.

• Increased public awareness and influence.

• Computer and internet applications.

Three current fashions in testing

• Test sponsor.

• Test developer.

• Test administrator.

• Test taker.

Four test stakeholders:

• Generic assessment knowledge and skills.

• Specific assessment qualifications.

Two types of assessment qualifications: