psy test 4

developmental psychology

the scientific study of how humans change over the life span, from conception through infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood

physical

growth of the body and changes in the brain, sensory and motor skills, and levels of hormones

cognitive

how do our mental processes and abilities to think and communicate change over time

socio-emotional

changes in how we understand ourselves, interact with others, and experience and regulate emotions

prenatal development

is development that takes place before birth

germinal period

the period in prenatal development from conception to two weeks after conception, when the zygote divides rapidly and implants in the uterine wall 0-2 weeks

embryonic period

the period in prenatal development from three through eight weeks after conception, when the brain, spine, major, organs, and bodily structures begin to form in the embryo 2-8 weeks

fetal period

the period in prenatal development from nine weeks after conception until birth, when the brain continues developing, bodily structures are refined, and the fetus grows in length and weight and accumulates fat in preparation for birth (37 -40th weeks)

teratogens

environmental substances that can harm prenatal development

maturation

physical development of the brain and body that produces growth and enables physical and psychological functioning.

rooting reflex

the turn and opening of the mouth shown by infants

sucking reflex

automatic closing of the mouth on the nipple

grasping reflex

automatic curling of fingers around the stoked areas on the palm

attachment

an enduring emotional connection that can motivate care, protection, and social support

Harlow

mother-is-food theory (wrong) , test attachment

separation anxiety

when the attachment figures are not in sight to the infant they will show distress

Mary Ainsworth

strange-situation test, shows attachment styles infants might have

secure attachment

the attachment style for infants who are confident enough to play in an unfamiliar environment as long as the caregiver is present and who is readily comforted by the return of the caregiver

avoidant attachment

the attachment style for infants who do not look at the caregiver when the caregiver leaves or returns and who play happily with the stranger in the caregiver's absence

ambivalent attachment

the attachment style for infants who seem to have mixed feelings about the caregiver - they cry when the caregiver leaves the room, but they both seek out and reject the caregiver upon the caregiver's return

assimilation

the process we use to incorporate new information into existing schemas

accommodation

the prosses we use to create new schemas or drastically alter existing schemas to incorporate new information that otherwise would not fit

sensorimotor stage

the first stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development; during this stage, infants acquire information about the world through their senses and motor skills

object permanence

the understanding that an object continues to exist even when it is hidden from view

preoperational stage

the second stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development; during this stage, children think symbolically about objects, but they reason based on intuition and superficial appearances rather than logic

egocentrism

view the world through their own experiences

concrete operational stage

the third stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development; during this stage, children begin to think about and understand logical operations, and they are no longer fooled by appearances (7-11)

law of conservation

even if the appearance of the substance changes in one dimension, the properties of that substance remain unchanged

formal operational stage

the fourth and final stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development; during this stage, people can think abstractly, they can formulate and test hypotheses through logic (11+)

scaffolding

basic support and guidance that helps a child move on to higher levels of thinking

theory of mind

the ability to understand that other people have mental states that influence their behavior

morphemes

the smallest units that have meaning, including suffixes and prefixes

phonemes

basic sounds

syntax

is the system of rules about how words are combined into phrases and how phrases are combined to make sentences

babbling

intentional vocalization, often by an infant, that does not have a specific meaning

telegraphic speech

speech in which toddlers combine basic words in a logical syntax, but not a complete sentence, that conveys a wealth of meaning

overregularization

the tendency for young children to incorrectly use a regular grammar rule when they should use an exception to the rule

puberty

the period during adolescence in which sexual maturation leads to the ability to reproduce

secondary sex characteristics

physical features that are not directly related to reproduction but that indicate the differences between the sexes

primary sex characteristics

physical features directly related to reproduction, such as reproductive organs and genitals

identity versus role confusion

the fifth stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, in which adolescents face the challenge of figuring out who they are

parenting styles

methods of parenting based on levels of how demanding and responsive a parent is

helicopter parent

hover over their offspring and bulldoze career paths in front of them

responsive parents

are loving and sensitive to their child's emotional and physical needs

unresponsive parents

emotionally cold and inattentive to their child's needs

highly demanding parent

set rules, limits on the child's behavior, and expect the child to obey their requirement

low demanding parents

refrain from imposing their authority on their children

bullying

a behavior in which a person repeatedly acts aggressively in an unwanted way

physical bullying

physical contact that hurts a person or physical intimidation

verbal bullying

name-calling; making offensive remarks; joking about a person's appearance, religion, gender identity, ethnicity, or sexual orientation; verbal intimidation

social bullying

spreading rumors or stories about someone; excluding someone from a group on purpose; making fun of someone by pointing out the person's differences

cyberbullying

sending aggressive, threatening, and/or intimidating messages, pictures, or information using social media, e-mail, instant messaging, text messaging, or voicemail

Kohlberg

tested moral reasoning skills by asking people to respond to hypothetical situations in which someone faced a moral dilemma

emerging adulthood

in the developed world, people between ages 18 to 25 are considered to be emerging adults

dementia

severe impairment in intellectual capacity and personality, often due to Alzheimer's disease and strokes

intimacy versus isolation

the sixth stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, in which young adults face that challenge of forming committed long-term friendships and romances

generativity versus stagnation

the seventh stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, in which middle-aged adults face that challenge of leaving behind a positive legacy and caring for future generations

integrity versus despair

eight stages of Ericksons theory of psychosocial development, in which older adults face that challenge of feeling satisfied that they have lived a good life and developed wisdom

attributions

explanations for events or actions including other people's behavior

dispositional attributions

explanations for why events or actions occur based on people's internal characteristics, such as abilities, traits, moods, or efforts

situational attributions

explanations for why events or actions occur based on external factors, such as the weather, luck, accidents, or other people's actions

just world hypothisis

that victims must have done something to justify what happened to them

fundamental attribution error

the tendency to overemphasize personality traits and underestimate situations when attempting to explain other people's behavior

actor bias

when you are ths actor, you attribute the outcome to the situation

observer bias

when you are the observer, you attribute the outcome to another person's personality traits

self-fulfilling prophecy

people's tendency to behave in ways that confirm their own or other people's expectations

stereotype threat

apprehension about confirming negative stereotypes related to a person's own group

ingroup favoritism

consequence of categorizing people as ingroup or outgroup members is

social identity theory

your group memberships are an important part of how you view yourself

prejudice

negative feelings, opinions, and beliefs associated with a stereotype about people in a particular group

discrimination

the inappropriate and unjustified treatment of people based on the groups they belong to

attitudes

feelings and beliefs about objects, events, and ideas

simple attitudes

your behavior matches your attitude

complex attitude

your behavior dose not match your attitude

attitude accessibility

ease or difficulty of retrieving an attitude from memory

R. Zajonc

exposed people to unfamiliar items either a few times or many times

mere exposure effects

the increase in liking due to repeated exposure

explicit attitude

an attitude that you are consciously aware of and can report

implicit attitude

an attitude that influences your feelings and behavior at an unconscious level and is often revealed indirectly through behavior

IAT (Implicit Association Test)

measures how quickly a person associates concepts or objects with positive or negative words

L. Festinger

the proposed theory of cognitive dissonance

cognitive disonance

an uncomfortable mental state due to a contradiction between two attitudes or between an attitude and a behavior

post decisional dissonance

motivates you to focus on the positive aspects of one option and the other options negative aspects

insufficient justification effect

not enough reason to lie therefore is why they went along with the lie when asked if the experiment was enjoyable

persuasion

the active and conscious effort to change and attitude by sending a message

The source, The content, and the receiver

three factors that affect persuasiveness of a message

R. Petty and J. Cacioppo

Elaboration likelihood model

Elaboration Likelihood model

when you think carefully or not too deeply

central route

a method of persuasion that uses high elaboration; that is, you pay attention to the arguments and consider all the information in the message. this method usually results in development of stronger attitudes that last over time and that you actively defend.

peripheral route

a method of persuasion that uses low elaboration; that is, you minimally process the message. this method usually results in the development of weaker attitudes that are more likely to change over time

social facilitation

an effect that occurs when the mere presence of others improves performance

social loafing

an effect that occurs when people tend to work less hard in a group than they do when they work alone

deindividuation

a state of reduced individuality, reduced self-awareness, and reduced attention to personal standards; it may occur when people belong to a group

j. Stoner

found groups often make riskier decisions that indaviduals do, in turn made the risky-shift effect

risky-shift effect

accounts for why people in a group my try something dangerous that none of them would have tried alone

group polarization

if most of the group members are somewhat cautions, then the group becomes even more cautious, and if the group is more risky, their decisions will be even riskier

I. Janis

coined the term groupthink

groupthink

occurs when a group is under intense pressure, facing external threats, or biased in a particular direction

conformity

the act of altering you own behaviors and opinions to match those of other people or to match other people's expectations

normative influence

leads to conformity when to be liked, to be accepted, or to avoid looking foolish you go along with what the group dose