ITP Topic 7 Thinking and Intelligence

Cognition

The mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding.

Thinking

is the mental manipulation of representations of knowledge about the world.

In simpler terms: using and changing information in your mind to reason, solve problems, make decisions, etc.

Mental representations

Analogical representations

these have some of the physical characteristics of the objects they represent. they are usually images (e.g. a map, a clocks hand, or a realistic drawing of a violin

Mental representations

Symbolic representations

abstract representations that do not correspond to physical features of objects or ideas. these are usually words, numbers, or ideas (e.g the word “violin” or the number “5”)

Mental maps

Mental representations of where places or objects are located in relation to each other. They can combine visual (analogical) and symbolic information.

Normative decision theories

explain how people should make decisions rationally by considering the alternatives and choosing the best option

Descriptive decision theories

explain how people actually make decisions, which can involve heuristics, biases, irrelevant information, and emotions

What is a concept and what are the two main models to explain how we form them

is a category or class of related items

• prototype model:

  • We categorize something by comparing it to a mental “best example” or most typical example of the category.

  • Example: Your prototype of a bird might be a robin. A new animal that resembles this typical bird is quickly categorized as a bird.

• exemplar model:

  • We categorize new items by comparing them to all the examples of that category we have encountered before.

  • example: You recognize a new dog as a dog by comparing it with different dogs you've seen before.

Prototype = ONE typical/best example
Exemplar = MANY actual examples you've encountered

Schemas

Cognitive structures that organize our knowledge and expectations about people, objects, events, or situations based on past experience.

Scripts

a specific type of schema that directs behaviour over time within a situation (e.g the sequence of buying a ticket, getting a snack, and sitting quietly at a movie)

Consequences of schemas

while adapted for efficiency, schemas can lead to:

• stereotypes: fast, automatic processing of information about people based on group membership

• gender roles: prescribed behaviour for females and males

Decision making vs problem solving

• decision making involves selecting among alternatives

• problem solving involves overcoming obstacles to reach a goal

Heuristics

mental shortcuts that are fast and efficient but prone to error

Heuristics and biases

Anchoring

relying on the first piece of information encountered (the “anchor”) to make a judgement

Heuristics and biases

Framing (and loss aversion)

• Framing: The way information is presented, emphasizing potential gains or losses, can influence how we perceive it and make decisions.

  • example: “90% survive” feels better than “10% die.”

• Loss aversion: The tendency to be more concerned with potential losses than with equivalent potential gains.

  • example: losing €50 feels worse than gaining €50 feels good.

Heuristics and biases

Availability heuristic

making a decision based on the answer that comes most easily to mind (e.g fearing plane crashes more than car crashes because plane crashes are more memorable)

Heuristics and biases

Representativeness heuristic

Explain the librarian example and base rate neglect

Making a judgment or categorizing something based on how similar it is to the typical example (prototype) of a category.

For example, imagine someone is described as quiet, enjoys reading, and is very organized. You might assume they are a librarian because they match your prototype of a librarian — even if there are actually far more people in another profession.

That last part is where base-rate neglect can happen: you focus on “How much do they seem like a librarian?” and ignore “How common are librarians actually?”

Heuristics and biases

Confirmation bias

focusing only on information that support existing beliefs

Heuristics and biases

Hindsight bias

creating after-the-fact explanations for events (e.g “I knew it all along”)

Emotion and decision making

Integral vs incidental emotions

• integral emotions: emotions caused by the choice itself, which help signal how good or bad an option feels (choice value)

• emotions caused by something unrelated to the choice, but which can still influence the decision

Emotional decision making

Affective forecasting heuristic

the tendency for people to overestimate how events will make them feel in the future (positive or negative)

Emotional decision making

Endowment effect

the tendency to value things we own more than things we don’t

Emotional decision making

Appraisal tendency framework

Different emotions create specific ways of thinking and interpreting situations, which can carry over and influence unrelated judgments and decisions.

The paradox of choice

when too many options are available, specially when all of them are attractive, people experience conflict and indecision

Maximisers vs satisficers

• maximisers: seek the absolute best choice. they often get objectively better results but are less happy and more prone to regret

• satisficers: seek a “good enough” choice that meets minimum requirements. they are generally more satisfied either their decision

Strategies for good decisions

1. adopt a satisficer mindset

2. make decisions irreversible (promise to stick with that)

3. maintain realistic expectations

4. practice an attitude of gratitude

Intelligence

the ability to use knowledge to reason, make decisions, solve problems, and adapt to challenges

when you talk about intelligence you are concerned about peoples individual differences, this is differential psychology

Testing intelligence

Original IQ formula

• Wilhelm Stern

• IQ = (Mental Age ÷ Chronological Age) × 100

• Mental age (MA): level of intellectual performance

• Chronological age (CA): actual age

Testing intelligence

Deviation IQ

Measured against the avarage adult using a normal distribution (bell curve). the mean is 100, and the standard deviation (SD) is 15.

• 68.3% of people score between 85 and 115

• 95% of people score between 70 and 130

Intelligence tests for children

• Binet / Stanford-Binet

• WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children)

Intelligence tests for adults

• Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS): individual test; featuring both verbal and performance (non-verbal) parts

• Raven's Progressive Matrices test: non-verbal test

• Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT): group test

Reliability & validity of intelligence tests

• High reliability = results are consistent/stable

• High predictive validity = can predict outcomes such as school/work performance; prediction depends partly on job complexity

What is the psychometric approach to intelligence?

An approach that tries to understand the nature of intelligence by studying patterns of results on intelligence tests.

What did Spearman propose about intelligence?

Intelligence consists of:

• General intelligence (g): a general ability that affects performance across many tasks

• Specific abilities: abilities needed for particular tasks

Theories of intelligence

General intelligence (g)

• Charles Spearman (key researcher)

• A general intelligence factor (g) underlies performance across different mental abilities.

• People also have specific abilities (s) for particular tasks.

Theories of intelligence

Fluid vs crystallised intelligence

• Raymond Cattell

• Fluid intelligence: ability to reason and solve new problems, without relying on previously learned knowledge.

• Crystallised intelligence: knowledge and skills acquired through experience and education.

Theories of intelligence

Multiple intelligences

• Howard Gardner

• Intelligence consists of multiple distinct abilities, rather than one general intelligence.

• People can have different strengths across these intelligences (e.g., linguistic, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic).

Theories of intelligence

Triarchic Theory

• Robert Sternberg

• Analytical intelligence → analysing, evaluating, comparing, and solving problems.

• Creative intelligence → dealing with novel situations and generating/adapting ideas.

• Practical intelligence → applying knowledge to real-world situations and adapting to everyday demands.

Theories of intelligence

Emotional intelligence

• Salovey & Mayer

• The ability to recognise, understand, use, and manage emotions in yourself and others.

Mental processing speed

Reaction time

Intelligent (g) people have faster simple and choice reaction times

Mental processing speed

Inspection time

The amount of time needed to view a stimulus to answer a question about it. faster inspection time correlates with higher IQ

What cognitive measures correlate with g?

• Reaction time → simple and choice RT

• Discrimination performance → ability to quickly distinguish between stimuli

• Working memory capacity → ability to hold and manipulate information

• Executive control → ability to control attention and manage competing information

Working memory and intelligence (g)

• Working memory is strongly related to general intelligence (g).

• This may be because both depend on the ability to maintain attention.

• Example: N-back tasks measure working memory.

Brain structure and intelligence

• Brain size has a small positive correlation with IQ.

• Gray matter volume in the frontal lobes is related to fluid intelligence.

Savant syndrome

Savants have minimal intellectual capacity in most domains but show exceptional ability in one specific area

Is the score on an intelligence test affected by genes or environment?

BOTH!

Nature vs nurture in intelligence

Genetic factors

• Behavioural genetics: twin and adoption studies show that the greater the genetic relationship, the higher the IQ correlates

• Heritability: estimates suggest genetics account for 40% or variation in crystallised intelligence and 51% in fluid intelligence

• Social multiplier: a small genetic advantage can lead to an environment that further nurtures that skill

Nature vs nurture in intelligence

Environmental factors

Prenatal/postnatal:

Nutrition, birth weight, and breast feeding are associated with higher IQ

Nature vs nurture in intelligence

Environmental factors

Socioeconomic status (SES)

growing up in a wealthy family can increase IQ by 12-18 points

Nature vs nurture in intelligence

Environmental factors

Enriched environments

these increase synaptic connections and activate genes involved in brain function (epigenetics)

Nature vs nurture in intelligence

Environmental factors

Schooling

the longer children stay in school, the higher their IQ

The Flynn effect

• James Flynn notes that IQ scores have risen dramatically over the last century. Since genes cannot change this quickly, the rise must be due to environmental factors:

  • better nutrition and healthcare

  • increased requirements for education and complex cognitive processing in daily life

  • exposure to technology

Within-group vs. between-group differences in intelligence

• Within-group differences: differences in intelligence among individuals within the same group.

• Between-group differences: differences in average intelligence between groups.

• Key point: The factors explaining differences within a group do not necessarily explain differences between groups.

Example: Plants may differ in height within the same soil, but the average height difference between two groups may be caused by soil quality (environment).