EDP 320 Midterm

What is the difference between learning and performance?

Learning is knowledge that is both durable and flexible. Performance is what can be measured DURING training or instruction (in the moment, not how it is transferred and applied to different contexts over time).

What does it mean for knowledge to be durable and flexible?

Durable - long-lasting; you remember it

Flexible - applicable/transferrable

How can performance tell us something about learning?

The processes and strategies that go into producing performance can indicate how much learning took place

What is the forgetting curve? How can it be flattened?

The forgetting curve has two axis: on the x-axis is time, and on the y-axis is recall/retention. Like an exponential decay curve, we very quickly forget information over time.

The more often we recall information, the more frequently we retain it, and the flatter the curve gets. (i.e. every time you recall information, you’re relearning it and therefore retaining it more).

What are the implications of the forgetting curve, both as a student and as a teacher?

We/our students will forget things very fast (faster than we think), so we have to review/revisit concepts to build retention (durability).

BONUS: Spaced retrieval is best to strengthen recall from long-term memory.

What are learning styles, and how were they debunked by the lack of evidence for the Meshing hypothesis?

What implications does the persistence of this myth have for teachers?

Learning styles are the myth that people learn best in different ways (eg visual, audio, kinesthetic). The Meshing hypothesis, based on this myth, proposes that if people have learning styles, they will learn better in their preferred learning style than they would in other learning styles. This hypothesis was debunked; it’s actually the case that people learn best when they learn content across a variety of different mediums, formats, and contexts to strengthen its integration into the semantic network.

The persistence of this myth means that teachers will should incorporate multimedia learning into their lessons and actively debunk learning styles for students, providing to them that they actually do learn well when do learn using all the different “styles.”

Draw the multi-store model of model. What are the three components of memory, and how do they differ from each other? Provide an example of each. How do we move information between the different components?

How does the multi-store model of memory apply to classroom learning?

What are the three components of working memory, according to Alan Baddeley’s working memory model? How do they relate to multitasking?

Phonological loop - storage of sounds (eg words, digits, sentences); subvocalization gets disrupted when we, say, listen to music

Visuospatial sketchpad - 2/3D images of objects

Central executive - the carpenter; directs/allocates attention and chooses what and how to manipulate info to create things in the working memory

Can use visual mnemonics to help remember things because they’re independent from one another.

Multitasking isn’t real; you’re really just rapidly switching back and forth between tasks (task switching). Each switch takes extra energy, making it a less efficient use of energy. Multitasking only works when you’re using different components of your working memory (eg listening to music while drawing).

What is cognitive (over)load, and what its three additive types? What are the optimal levels of the additive types?

Cognitive load is the processing demands placed on the working memory. Cognitive overload is when there is too much information vying for our limited capacity.

Intrinsic - the inherent difficulty of the task; has to do with desired difficulty (has to be not so hard that it exhausts your cognitive resources but not so easy that you’re not learning)

Extrinsic/extraneous - things outside the task that can add load, associated with the way the information is presented

Germane - associated with the synthesis of learning with prior knowledge to build new knowledge; essential to learning and conceptual change

To optimize your cognitive load for learning, you want to reduce intrinsic load and optimize intrinsic load.

What is chunking? How many chunks can we hold in working memory? How is chunking related to expertise?

Chunking is the process of compressing information. A chunk is a meaningful unit of information. It reduces cognitive load of the working memory by pulling larger chunks from our (HUGE) long-term memory. We can only hold about 3-5 chunks in our working memory (memory capacity, vs we can hold 7 +- 2 in our short-term memory, which is memory span), but those chunks can be fairly complex.

The more expertise you have in a subject, the more complex and efficient your chunks. Getting the basics down first allows you to form larger chunks to then tackle more complex tasks.

What are the four multimedia principles? What are their purpose when designing learning materials (e.g. textbooks, slides)

Multimedia - people learn best when information is presented both for their visuospatial sketchpad and their phonological loop

Coherence - only put things that are a relevant (don’t put extraneous content/stuff/decorations/info)

Signaling - use cues to highlight the organization of the essential material (eg splitting into section, bullet points, headers)

Spatial contiguity - put conceptually aligned things next to each other or even overlayed (eg put descriptions for the water cycle on the relevant parts of the image of the cycle itself rather than using a key where a paragraph references points in the picture)

The multimedia principles reduce extrinsic load in the creation of learning materials, making learning easier for students as they can focus their cognitive resources on the intrinsic load of the task and germane load of learning through processing, elaborating, and deepening connections.

What is active vs passive learning, and what differing processes do they engage? What are examples of each?

Active learning is the process by which learners deliberately take control of their own learning and construct knowledge rather than passively receiving it. It includes processes of constructing new knowledge and integrating new information into existing information, frequently assessing the status of your understanding, and taking agency in directing learning (self-regulated learner). Active learning feels harder but is better for learning.

Passive learning on the other hand involves just passively taking information in.

How are our long-term memories organized?

Our long-term memories are organized into schemas. Schemas are cognitive frameworks that dictate how we organize our info and provide a way for us to organize, understand, and integrate new information into our minds. They often depend on past experiences, prior knowledge, and contexts (i.e. what is typical/frequent for a certain context) (e.g. sorting watermelon, cherries, and bananas into the same schema of “fruits”, expecting books to be in a picture of a grad student’s office).

How can you take passive learning activities and make them more active? Give specific examples.

How can we integrate new knowledge with pre-existing knowledge networks?

We can integrate active learning strategies into passive practices: self-explanations, elaboration, and pre-testing.

In general, integrating new knowledge into pre-existing semantic networks requires making connections between new knowledge and prior knowledge.

What are semantic networks, and how do they relate to the production of false memories?

Semantic networks are the interconnected networks and schemas in which our knowledge is clustered in our long-term memory. Their interconnection means that there is a broad activation of networks when we receive a certain sensory stimuli, which can lead to false memory (eg for highly associated words, remembering that “fruit” was said when banana, apple, and kiwi were said). The production of false memory is called the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) effect.

What does it mean to be “fooled by fluency”? How does this effect our learning?

Do be fooled by fluency is to assume that because something feels easy, you must have learned it. This causes us to think that passive learning is more effective than active learning; because it feels easier and truly just requires that you regurgitate information you jus learned, you leave the performance phase of learning thinking you’ve mastered the content without it ever truly entering your long-term memory. This is highly associating with the use of passive learning strategies such as listening to lectures, rereading notes, and doing flashcards without actually testing yourself before you look at the definition.

What are the three effective learning strategies (that we’ve discussed in class)?

Self-explanation, elaboration, pre-testing

What is the definition of self-explanation?

What is evidence that this strategy is effective?

Why does this strategy work?

How can you use this strategy as a teacher?

What are examples of using this strategy?

Self-explanation is when you use your own words to explain a concept to someone else or yourself.

In a study, students learned the rules for a logical reasoning task and then practiced those rules on several problems. They either:

○ Self-explained their reasoning as they solved problems,

○ Self-explained their reasoning after they solved problems, or

○ Did not self-explain at all.

Then, they took a test where those rules had to be applied to new problems. Students who explained during their process did best (90% correct), followed by those who did it after (70%) and those you didn’t at all (30%).

This strategy works because it connects info with prior knowledge, and it forces you to genuinely check for understanding (rather than being fooled by fluency) of a concept through processing it and repeating it. Repeating a concept also forces retrieval, which strengthens that network in your brain.

You can use this strategy as a teacher by having students explain concepts to each other or on paper and correcting any misconceptions that come up.

Examples of self-explanation are explaining to yourself a math concept as you solve a problem to ensure that you aren’t just doing the steps but actually understand the why behind the processes to solve the problem.

What is the definition of elaboration?

What is evidence that this strategy is effective?

Why does this strategy work?

How can you use this strategy as a teacher?

What are examples of using this strategy?

Elaboration is when you expand on knowledge, connecting it to prior knowledge and asking questions to deepen and broaden comprehension. In other words, it’s answering the question “Why?” in response to learning something new.

Study: Students read sentences such as “the hungry man got into the car”. Then, later, had to recall answers to questions about which man performed which action (“Who got into the car?”). Students who elaborated and came up with a reason for “Why did the hungry man get into the car?” remembered better who it was who had gotten into the car.

This strategy works because it activates your semantic networks, forcing you to pull from your long-term memory to elaborate on the knowledge you’re currently acquiring. Elaboration also allows for more points for the new info to be integrated into your semantic networks, and it deepens understanding through establishing that broader base of info and connections.

You can use this strategy as a teacher by prompting students to answer the “Why” questions behind concepts.

An example of using this strategy is asking students to draft conclusions from data they collected during science experiments (i.e. saying the “why” behind the data).

What is the definition of pre-testing?

What is evidence that this strategy is effective?

Why does this strategy work?

How can you use this strategy as a teacher?

What are examples of using this strategy?

Pre-testing is when you test what you know about a concept before you learn it.

Across different mediums (text passages, historical and trivia facts, video lectures), learners performed 15-30% better on posttests when they pretested compared to when they didn’t.

This strategy works because directs learners’ directional attention. It causes learners to look for pre-test related content in the lesson and lessens mind-wandering as students have more of an idea of what they’re looking for. Pretesting also activates your semantic networks to already start looking for ways to connect the new concept into your prior knowledge in any way possible, leading to richer encoding of information. It also forces you to retrieve any relevant knowledge you may already know.

As a teacher this can help you prepare students for learning and notify you of what misconceptions/knowledge your students already have on the subject. This can be done through low-stake Do Nows and MC/true-false questions given before teaching a concept.

An example of using this strategy is looking at the headers of a reading and guessing what the reading will be about and what the conclusions will be (especially for a research paper/study) based on those headings.

What is retrieval practice?

What is the evidence for retrieval practice being effective?

What are some theories about why retrieval practice works?

How should students use retrieval practice in their own studying?

What are some examples of ways to use retrieval practice as a teacher?

Retrieval practice is a learning method where you practice bringing back info from your long-term memory into your working memory.

In a study, students were asked to read text passages and then answer reading comprehension questions. There were two groups: students who studied for 5 minutes and then tested for three 5 minute increments, and another who stayed studying for those three increments. Both groups took a test a week after studying. While in the short term (after 5 minutes) the non-testing group did better, in the long term (after 2 days and 1 week), the testing group did much better.

Retrieval is considered to be a memory modifier, a learning event that strengthens what we retrieve. It is also said to slow down forgetting by causing us to remember it more frequently (flattening the forgetting curve).

Students should test themselves as they’re learning and force themselves to retrieve knowledge rather than passively just reading/rereading notes and looking at flashcards without first seeing if they know the answer (even if they get the answer wrong, the act of trying to retrieve the info is beneficial!).

An example of using retrieval practice as a teacher is having students recall a concept they used the previous class period on a Do Now. Teachers can also teach their students retrieval techniques (e.g. flashcards, creating test questions, concept mapping, self-explanation, brain dumping), all of which require that they do NOT look at their notes.

Note: Active learning does not = retrieval practice. Elaboration (students asking questions) is great, but having them discuss in groups and explain concepts for themselves is even better.

What is spacing?

What is the evidence for spacing being effective?

What are some theories about why spacing works?

Does spacing take more time than cramming?

How should students use spacing in their own studying?

What are some examples of ways to use spacing as a teacher?

Spacing is when you space out studying/learning/retrieval over time.

A study found that while those who crammed did better on a acquisition posttest taken right after studying compared to those who practiced distributed study, those who spaced their study performed better on a final test taken two days later than those who did massed study. In other words, the spacers had greater retention after two days than the crammers.

Retrieval theory: Spacing works because it causes your brain to practice retrieving information from your long-term memory, strengthening that semantic network and retrieval route and flattening the forgetting curve.

Diminished processing: Our attention declines with each repetition when we cram. Spacing learning/studying allows for the brain to take a break and better process and pay attention to the information.

Encoding variability theory: When repetitions are spaced, each one is more likely to be encoded slightly differently (e.g. in a different physical space, connecting into a different prior knowledge/schema in our head), strengthening its integration into our semantic networks and strengthening our memories over time.

Spacing (distributed study) does not take more time than cramming (massed study); it just requires advanced planning/students to start earlier in their studying.

Students should start their studying earlier/create study schedules that space their studying out evenly over multiple sessions across multiple days and avoid cramming.

Teachers can space out content review activities across multiple days rather than saving review for just right before the exam. For example, an exit ticket can recall a concept taught two weeks ago, or a teacher can build on a concept taught during the previous class when teaching a new concept.

What is interleaving?

What is the evidence for interleaving being effective?

What are some theories about why interleaving works?

How should students use interleaving in their own studying?

What are some examples of ways to use interleaving as a teacher?

Students from 8 high school science classrooms either took blocked or interleaved

quizzes

interleaving group did best on final test

What are “desirable difficulties” and why are they called this? What are the processes that are important for something to be considered a “desirable difficulty”?

effective learning strategies

have to direct attention, activate prior knowledge, and retrieve previously learned information

What is self-regulated learning? What differentiates self-regulated learners from those who are not self-regulated learners?

self-regulated learning occurs when you take control of and responsibility for your own learning; self-regulated learnings evaluate tasks, plan how to tackle them, monitor themselves and make needed adjustments (metacognitive monitoring and metacognitive control) as they’re learning, and reflect on learning in an adaptive way to then make adjustments for the future

What are the three components of Zimmerman’s self-regulation cycle, and what are the processes involved in each?

forethought phase (goal setting, strategic planning, self-motivation)

performance phase (monitoring progress (metacognition: metacognitive monitoring and metacognitive control), using learning strategies, resource (e.g. time) management)

self-reflection phase (self-evaluation, attribution (adaptive/defensive responses), adapting for futuree)

What are the processes involved in the forethought phrase?

setting goals, strategic planning, self-motivation

What does the acronym SMART stand for? What are examples of SMART goals and non-SMART goals? What does the research on SMART goals show?

Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, Time-bound

research shows that SMART goals work for highly structured environments, but they aren’t as good for more creative/less-rigid and/or more variable environments

What are the processes involved in the performance phase?

monitoring progress (metacognition: metacognitive monitoring, metacognitive control), learning strategies, resource management

What is metacognitive monitoring? What are some examples? What is metacognitive control? What are some examples? What are challenges to accurate metacognitive monitoring? What are challenges to accurate metacognitive control?

metacognitive monitoring is when you monitor your progress as you complete a task; challenges to accurate metacognitive monitoring include difficulties in determining with accuracy how well we are learning (desireable difficulties vs fooled by fluency)

the best way to overcome this challenge is to self-test to overcome fooled fluency

metacognitive control is when you make adjustments as you are completing a task to be more effective as you complete it; challenges to accurate metacognitive control include lack of knowledge about more effective strategies, lack of awareness that what you’re doing is ineffective (metacognitive monitoring), lack of resources (e.g. time, space), having non-optimal habits, being fooled by fluency, and lack of motivation to switch to a more effective strategy

the best way to overcome these challenges is to reach out for help if needed

What are the processes involved in the self-reflection phase?

self-evaluation, attribution (adaptive/defensive response), adapting for future

What is a strategic mindset? What has the research on strategic mindset shown?

strategic mindset means you habitually identify strategies applicable to a task and discern which one can be used to complete the task most effectively, asking yourself questions like “What can I ty to be better at this?” and “What can I do to be even better?” especially in the face of challenges or unproductivity

research has shown that strategic mindset, across different countries (American and Singaporean public university students), increases usage of high-order metacognitive and effective learning strategies and is associated with higher GPAs + across different age groups (children 5-6 years old read a story book about strategic mindset and were more likely to last longer during the marshmallow test and to use different strategies to stop themselves from eating the marshmallow)

What are examples of ways that teachers can support students’ self-regulated learning?

have students set goals of learning and reflect after tests + have check-ins on how effective their learning is throughout + teach effective strategies

What are misconceptions? What are some reasons that people have misconceptions? What are some examples of common misconceptions?

What is conceptual change? What are barriers to conceptual change?

What is assimilation? When does this occur? What is accommodation? When does this occur?

What is confirmation bias?

How can teachers promote conceptual change? What are some specific examples of these strategies?

What are some theories about why spacing works?

Retrieval practice theory - spacing causes us to practice retrieval, which strengthens our memory and flattens the forgetting curve as our brain’s semantic pathway for retrieving that information is strengthened

Diminished processing - our attention tends to decline as we cram; spacing gives our brains a break so they can process better and pay more attention to the info

Encoding variability theory - when we space, we are more likely to encode the information a little differently each time, leading to greater integration of the new info into our semantic networks and strengthened memories

What is transfer? Why is transfer important? What are some examples of transfer?

What is “near” versus “far” transfer?

What are the three dimensions of transfer that we discussed? What is the definition of that dimension? What are examples of “near” and “far” transfer along that dimension?

What are the three steps of transfer?

recall, retrieve/abstract, apply

Why is it important to use both abstract principles and concrete examples when teaching for transfer?

using concrete helps students be able to see multiple actual examples of how to do the transfer, and then slowly transitioning to abstract helps ensure students have a broader understanding of the concept rather than just having rote memorization of concrete examples

What are ways to promote transfer?

■ Providing/generating multiple varied examples

■ Providing/generating non-examples

■ Comparing and contrasting features

■ Making analogies

■ Gradually fading concreteness

What does the acronym WOOP stand for? What does the research on WOOP show? Why is each part of the process important?

Wish, (visualizing the) Outcome, (internal) Obstacles, Plan (when… then… for when each obstacle occurs)

research on WOOP shows that the Wish and Outcome portions helps make the distinction between where you are now and where you want to be more clear, and the obstacles and plan portions help there be a clear route to achieving the desired outcome (thus why you’re asked to visualize the desired outcome), increasing motivation and commitment