more ocnpressed ch 7

What were the provisions of the Articles of Confederation?

The Articles of Confederation (1777, ratified 1781) created a loose alliance in which states retained most political power. Congress had one house with one vote per state, regardless of population; there was no president/executive branch or national judiciary; 9 of 13 states had to approve major laws; all 13 had to approve amendments; and Congress could not directly tax or regulate interstate/foreign commerce. The system was designed to prevent centralized power and preserve state sovereignty.

What issue had to be solved before the states would approve the Articles of Confederation?

The major issue was western lands. Seven states, including Virginia and New York, claimed large western territories, while six had none. Landless states argued that all states had fought for independence and should benefit from western lands. Virginia and New York eventually ceded their claims to the national government. Congress then managed the public domain for the “common benefit,” allowing land sales to raise revenue and eventually creating equal states from the territories. This helped strengthen the Union.

What were the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation?

The central government was too weak to govern effectively: Congress could not levy taxes, regulate commerce, or enforce its laws; there was no executive branch or national court system; 9 states had to approve major laws; and all 13 had to approve amendments. As a result, the government struggled financially, states quarreled over trade, federal laws were difficult to enforce, interstate disputes lacked a national solution, and changing the government was nearly impossible.

What were the accomplishments of the government under the Articles of Confederation?

The Articles government successfully organized western expansion. The Land Ordinance of 1785 created a rectangular survey system dividing land into townships 6 miles square and sections 1 mile square, making land sales more organized, although speculators often benefited. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 created a process for governing western territories: territories were governed by Congress-appointed officials, later gained elected legislatures, and could become states after reaching 60,000 residents. It protected basic liberties and prohibited slavery in the Northwest Territory. Most importantly, western territories would eventually enter the Union as states equal to the older states.

What foreign affairs issues did the new government face?

The weak national government struggled with Britain, Spain, and France. Britain refused to make a commercial treaty, maintained trade restrictions, and kept troops at forts in the Northwest. Spain controlled the mouth of the Mississippi River and closed it to American commerce in 1784, threatening western farmers’ ability to trade; Spain also claimed territory near the Gulf of Mexico and worked with Native groups to limit American expansion. France demanded repayment of wartime loans and restricted American trade with French-controlled ports. These problems demonstrated the weakness of the Articles because the national government lacked the power to effectively control foreign policy.

What caused Shays’ Rebellion, what was the outcome, and why was it a turning point?

Shays’ Rebellion (1786–1787) was caused by economic hardship among Massachusetts farmers, many of them Revolutionary War veterans. Farmers faced high taxes, debt, mortgage foreclosures, and a shortage of hard currency. Led by Daniel Shays, they demanded cheaper paper money, lower taxes, and debt relief. Massachusetts raised an army and suppressed the rebellion; Shays was later pardoned. The rebellion alarmed wealthy Americans because it appeared to show that state governments could not maintain order or protect property. It became a turning point because it strengthened support for a more powerful national government and helped create momentum for the Constitutional Convention.

Why did the delegates decide to keep the Constitutional Convention secret?

The delegates met secretly so they could debate controversial issues, change their positions, and negotiate compromises without pressure from the public or state governments. Secrecy was especially important because delegates were considering major changes to the Articles and eventually created an entirely new Constitution. The delegates generally agreed that government should derive its authority from the people, but they also feared majority tyranny. They therefore sought a stronger national government while using representation, separation of powers, and checks and balances to prevent any one group from becoming too powerful.

What was the Great Compromise?

The Great Compromise resolved the conflict between large and small states over congressional representation. The Virginia Plan favored large states because representation would be based on population in a two-house legislature. The New Jersey Plan protected small states by giving each state equal representation. The compromise created a bicameral Congress: the House of Representatives would be based on population, while the Senate would give every state 2 senators. Representatives originally served 2-year terms and senators 6-year terms. The compromise allowed both large and small states to accept the Constitution.

What is the Electoral College, and why was this provision included in the Constitution?

The Electoral College is the system in which states choose electors who formally select the president and vice president. Each state’s number of electors equals its total congressional representation: its senators plus representatives. The framers chose an indirect system rather than direct national election or selection entirely by Congress. Originally, each elector cast two votes for different candidates; the candidate with the most votes became president and the second-place candidate became vice president. If nobody received a majority, the House chose the president, with each state receiving one vote. The system reflected the framers’ desire to balance popular participation with indirect representation and checks on majority rule.

What was the Trade or Commerce Compromise?

The compromise resolved disagreements between northern and southern states over federal control of trade and slavery. Southern states feared Congress could tax their exports or interfere with the slave trade, while northern states wanted federal power to regulate commerce and raise revenue. Congress was therefore given power to regulate interstate and international commerce but could not tax exports. Congress also could not prohibit the international slave trade until 1808. The president could negotiate treaties, but two-thirds of the Senate had to approve them. The compromise strengthened federal commercial power while protecting important southern interests.

What was the Three-Fifths Compromise?

The Three-Fifths Compromise established that three-fifths of the enslaved population would be counted when determining representation in the House and direct taxation. Enslaved people did not receive voting rights or political power. Instead, counting part of the enslaved population increased the number of representatives and electoral votes awarded to slaveholding states. The compromise therefore strengthened the political influence of southern states while preserving slavery within the constitutional system.

What is the underlying cause of checks and balances?

Checks and balances were created to prevent any one branch of government from becoming too powerful. The framers believed political power could be abused because people and political leaders could act in their own interests. Therefore, power was divided among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, with each branch given ways to limit the others. For example, Congress makes laws, the president can veto them, and courts can determine whether government actions violate the Constitution. The system was designed to prevent tyranny and protect liberty.

What position did the Federalists take concerning the Constitution, who supported them, and who were their leaders?

Federalists supported ratification because they believed the Articles had created a government too weak to maintain order, regulate commerce, protect national credit, and preserve the Union. They favored a stronger central government and generally supported loose constitutional interpretation. Their support came largely from merchants, wealthy property owners, financiers, and many people living along the eastern seaboard. Major Federalist leaders included George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay. They generally believed national power was necessary for economic stability and political order.

What position did the Anti-Federalists take, who supported them, and who were their leaders?

Anti-Federalists opposed or criticized the Constitution because they feared a powerful national government could become tyrannical and destroy state sovereignty and individual liberty. They objected to the lack of a Bill of Rights, the creation of a standing army, indirect government structures, and increased federal authority. Their support came especially from small farmers, debtors, backcountry residents, and strong states’ rights supporters. Major leaders included Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, and Richard Henry Lee. Their pressure helped lead to the adoption of the Bill of Rights.

Why did many states require a Bill of Rights before they would vote to ratify the Constitution?

Many Anti-Federalists feared that the new federal government could violate individual liberties because the original Constitution did not explicitly protect freedoms such as speech, religion, and press. They wanted written guarantees limiting federal power. Federalists eventually promised to consider amendments protecting individual rights. Massachusetts ratified after assurances of amendments; New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify, putting the Constitution into effect; Virginia followed after a promise of a Bill of Rights; North Carolina delayed ratification until rights were protected; and Rhode Island initially rejected the Constitution. The Bill of Rights was ultimately added in 1791.

To what extent is the Constitution a conservative document, and what does “conservative” mean in this context?

Calling the Constitution conservative means that it was designed to preserve stability, property rights, and limits on rapid majority rule rather than create direct democracy. Federal judges received life tenure, senators were originally chosen indirectly by state legislatures, and the president was indirectly elected through the Electoral College. The Constitution also strengthened protection of contracts and property. Charles Beard’s economic interpretation argued that wealthy property owners shaped the Constitution to protect their economic interests, although historians debate how much economic interests versus political and ideological concerns explain the Constitution.

How did the definition of citizenship in the new republic exclude Native Americans and African Americans?

The new republic did not establish equal citizenship for everyone living within its territory. Many American leaders viewed western lands as available for white settlement and treated Native nations as separate political communities rather than full members of the republic. The 1795 Treaty of Greenville forced Native groups to cede much of present-day Ohio and Indiana, while federal annuity payments increased government influence over Native affairs. For African Americans, northern states gradually abolished slavery, but southern states maintained slavery. Enslaved African Americans lacked political rights and were excluded from full citizenship despite the republic’s ideals of liberty and equality.