POUL 3000 Hematology

what is hematology

study of blood physiology in health and disease

what are the three functions of blood

• transportation

• protection

• regulation

what does blood transport

nutrients, blood gases, metabolic waste products, hormones

what components does blood have to protect

• WBC

• antibodies

• clotting factors

• coagulation

what does the blood regulate

• body pH

• water and electrolyte balance

• body temperature

what are the three components from a blood draw

aqueous and cellular and buffy coat

what are the two components of blood when you draw with an anticoagulant

aqueous - plasma

cellular - cellular components

what are the two components of blood when you draw with no anticoagulant

aqueous - serum

cellular - cellular components and clotting factors

what does plasma contain

• proteins

  • albumins

  • globulins

  • fibrinigen

what is the most prominent protein in plasma

albumins

what are albumins

small proteins, maintain osmotic pressure, high capacity, low affinity

what are globulins

alpha and beta bind nutrients and hormones

what is in the cellular component

RBCs, WBCs, thrombocytes/platelets

what is PCV

packed cell volume - volume of cellular component

do birds or mammals have a lower PCV

birds have a lower PCV

do females or males have a lower PCV

females have a lower PCV

is PCV lower or higher with anemia

lower (less RBC)

is PCV higher or lower with polycythemia

higher (more RBCs)

with anemia what blood component is higher

plamsa

with polycythemia what component is higher

cellular component

what causes anemia

massive blood loss (ulcers, internal bleeding)

nutritional disorders

genetic disorders

what causes polycythemia

dehydration

low O2 levels

genetic disorders (congenital heart disease)

what are two characteristics of stem cells that make them unique

• Asymmetric Cell Division: When a stem cell divides, it can divide asymmetrically. This means it can either replicate a copy of itself to ensure the stem cell pool is constantly self-renewed, or it can divide into a cell destined to differentiate into a specialized cell type.

• Differentiation Potential: Stem cells have the capacity to mature into a wide variety of functional cell types in the body, such as neurons, muscle cells, bone cells (osteoblasts), myoblasts, or fat cells (adipocytes)

what is totipotent

This is the earliest, most versatile level. The fertilized oocyte (or the earliest form of the embryo) is totipotent, meaning it can differentiate into absolutely any cell type in the entire animal body

what is pluripotent

As the embryo grows from the morula stage into the blastocyst stage, it develops embryonic stem cells, which are pluripotent. These can differentiate into any cell of the three primary embryonic germ layers: endoderm, mesoderm, or ectoderm

what is multipotent

These germ-layer stem cells are multipotent, meaning they can develop into multiple related cell types. For example, the mesodermal stem cell gives rise to the hematopoietic stem cell (also known as a hemocytoblast), which resides in the bone marrow and is responsible for producing all blood cell lines

what is oligopotent

These cells are more restricted and can only differentiate into a few specific cell types. For instance, endodermal stem cells differentiate into intestinal stem cells. These oligopotent cells only differentiate into a few cell types found in the intestinal lining, such as mucus-producing goblet cells, normal columnar epithelial cells, and enterochromaffin cells

what is unipotent

These are the most specialized stem cells, capable of developing into only one specific cell type. For example, ectodermal epidermal stem cells are unipotent and develop specifically into the fibroblasts of the skin

what does the common myeloid progenitor differentiate into

• megakaryocytes

• erythrocytes

• mast cells

• myoblasts (granulocytes and monocytes)

what is the common lymphoid progenitor

• natural killer cells

• small lymphocytes - T and B cells

what are erythrocytes

red blood cells

what is the most common blood cell type

erythrocytes

what do erythrocytes look like

disc-shaped, concave in mammals

what is the production of erythrocytes stimulated by

erythropoietin (EPO)

what increases EPO

hypoxia and androgens

what animals have a low metabolic rate

reptiles and fish

what animals have a high metabolic rate

humans, dogs, cats, birds

what does hemoglobin do

binds and carries all O2 and some CO2 (about 25%)

what percent of hemoglobin is converted to bicarbonate

75% and it is carried to the lungs in plasma so it can re-enter RBCs and be converted back to CO2

___% RBC content on dry matter basis

96

how is the domestic duck’s affinity with hemoglobin

low affinity - Ducks live in low-altitude, terrestrial environments where oxygen is abundant. Because they never really experience hypoxic (low-oxygen) environments, their hemoglobin has a relatively lower affinity for oxygen at low partial pressures. Their blood simply does not need to be highly adapted to trap scarce oxygen

how is the bar-headed goose hemoglobin affinity

high affinity - These geese migrate by flying over the Himalayas, spending days at extreme altitudes where the atmosphere is highly thin and oxygen is scarce

how is the emperor-penguins hemoglobin affinity

high affinity - Penguins experience low-oxygen environments of a different kind. They spend long periods diving deep underwater where dissolved oxygen is low, subjecting themselves to severe hypoxia

which leukocytes are granulocytes

all of the “phils”

heterophils/neutrophils

eosinophils

basophils

neutrophils/heterophils

Look for elongated, rod-shaped, brick-red granules. Their nucleus is polymorphonuclear (meaning it has multiple lobes, typically 3 or more).

They are the most common granulocytes and are highly active in fighting bacterial infections and driving early inflammation

what is the most common WBC in mammals

neutrophils

what is the most common WBC in chickens

lymphocytes

eosinophils

Visuals under the microscope: Unlike heterophils, eosinophils have perfectly round, bright red or orange granules. Their nucleus is usually bilobed (it only has 2 lobes, which look like a pair of sunglasses).

Function: Under normal conditions, they are rare (under 1–2% of granulocytes). Their numbers spike during parasitic infections or infestations

basophils

Visuals under the microscope: They are packed with dense, dark blue granules that are so crowded they completely hide the nucleus underneath.

Function: They are rare under normal conditions but are crucial mediators of allergic responses and anaphylaxis (severe systemic allergies)

what are the agranulocytes

the cytes - lymphocytes and monocytes

lymphocytes

Visuals under the microscope: They have a large nucleus and variable sizes.

Function: They perform diverse immune roles, including destroying foreign cells and activating B cells to produce antibodies

monocytes

Extremely rare in circulation

diverse immune functions

differentiate into macrophages or dendritic cell

heterophil - elongated granulocytes, redish

lymphocyte - large nucleus

eosinophil - round granulocytes

basophil - granulated, kind of covering nucleus, dark stained granules

monocyte - large nucleus, pale blue cytoplasm

thrombocyte - small, darker nucleus, transparent cytoplasm

neutrophil - multilobed nucleus, granules

lymphocyte - very large nucleus

eosinophil - round granules, multi-lobed

monocyte - pale blue cytoplasm, horseshoe shaped nucleus

basophil - dark-stained granules, can’t really see nucleus

platelet (tiny) and lymphocyte

what can cause bleeding disorders

• genetic disorders (Hemophilia type A, type B, type C, Von Willebrand disease

• nutritional deficiencies (vitamin K most common)

• side-effects of medication

what does WBC count look for

infection, inflammatory disease, cancer

what does RBC look for

anemia, blood loss, cancer

what does platelet count look for

clotting disorders, cancer

what does hematocrit look for

anemia, blood loss

what does Hb concentration look for

anemia, blood loss

what can you assess with glucose level

pancreatic function, insulin resistance, nutritional plane

what can you assess with Ca2+

bone health, kidney function, pancreatic function, nervous system function

what can you assess with electrolyes

kidney, cardiac function, hydration status

what can you asesss with CO2

kidney function, respiratory function, acid/base balance, adrenal function

what does high glucose mean

diabetes or dehydrationw

what does low glucose means

hypoglycemia (malnutrition), elevated hydration status

what does high calcium mean

kidney disease, endocrine imbalance

what does low calcium means

kidney disease, endocrine imbalance, poor skeletal integrity

what do high electrolytes mean

kidney or cardiac disease, dehydration

what do low electrolytes mean

kidney or cardiac disease, overhydration

what does high and low CO2 mean

lung disease, kidney disease, electrolyte imbalance

what does total protein (albumin) assess

liver function, kidney function, nutritional plane

what does blood urea nitrogen/creatine look at

kidney function

what does bilirubin look at

liver function

what do liver enzymes (ALP, ALT, AST) look at

liver function and damage

what does high total protein mean

liver or kidney disease, dehydration, severe inflammation or infection

what does low total protein mean

malnutrition, elevated hydration status, liver or kidney disease

what does high BUN and creatine mean

kidney disease, dehydration

what does low BUN and creatine mean

muscle disease, elevated hydration status

what does high bilirubin mean

liver disease, gall bladder or bile duct blockage, dehydration

what does low bilirubin mean

elevated hydration

what does high liver enzymes mean

liver damage, muscle damage, dehydration, excess protein intake

what do low liver enzymes means

liver disease or damage, severe overhydration

Which of the following agranulocytes are you most likely to see on a blood smear?

Lymphocytes

Thrombocytes

Monocytes

Basophils

Heterophils

lymphocytes

Hemocytoblasts are what type of cell?

Terminally differentiated cell

None of the these

Totipotent stem cell

Multipotent stem cell

Pluripotent stem cell

multipotent stem cell

Which of the following represents the largest fraction of whole blood in a healthy animal?

Leukocytes

Plasma

Gases

Thrombocytes

Hemoglobin

Plasma

You can measure the amount of fibrinogen in the blood using plasma but not serum.

True or False

True

The most prevalent protein found in plasma is hemoglobin.

True or False

False

Normally, you should see more lymphocytes than monocytes in a blood smear.

True or False

True

Examining packed cell volume can tell you if a patient is drinking enough water.

True or False

True